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HighwayEngineering (CH 2)

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45 views33 pages

HighwayEngineering (CH 2)

Uploaded by

Parwiz Yosofi
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Highway Engineering

Chapter 2
Road Vehicle Performance

Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, Fred L. Mannering, 4th Ed.

Spring, 1395
Introduction
 Roadway design is governed by two main
factors:
 Vehicle capabilities
▪ acceleration/deceleration
▪ braking
▪ cornering (chap. 3)
 Human capabilities (late chap. 2, chap. 3)
▪ perception/reaction times
▪ eyesight (peripheral range, height above roadway)
Introduction
 Performance of road vehicles forms the basis
for roadway design guidelines such as:
 length of acceleration / deceleration lanes
 maximum grades
 stopping-sight distances
 passing-sight distances
 speed limits
 timing of signalized intersections
Tractive Effort and Resistance
 These are the opposing forces that determine
straight-line performance of road vehicles
 Tractive effort is simply the force available at
the roadway surface to perform work
(expressed in lbs [N])
 Resistance (expressed in lbs [N]) is defined as
the force impeding vehicle motion
Tractive Effort and Resistance

 Three major sources of vehicle resistance are:


 Aerodynamic
 Rolling (originates from the roadway surface/tire
interface)
 Grade or gravitational
Tractive Effort and Resistance

∑ 𝐹𝑖=𝑚𝑎
Fig. 2.1
Aerodynamic Resistance
 Can have significant impacts on vehicle
performance, particularly at high speeds.
 Aerodynamic resistance originates from a number
of sources:
 Turbulent flow of air around the vehicle body
(≈ 85%)
▪ Function of shape of vehicle, particularly the rear
 Friction of air passing over vehicle body (≈ 12%)
 Air flow through vehicle components such as radiators and
air vents (≈ 3%)
Aerodynamic Resistance
 Based on these sources, equation for
determining aerodynamic resistance is:

Ra  CD Af V 2 (Eq. 2.3)
2
Ra = aerodynamic resistance in lb (N)
ρ (rho) = air density in slugs/ft3 (kg/m3)
CD = coefficient of drag (unitless)
Af = frontal area of vehicle (projected area
of vehicle in direction of travel) in ft2 (m2)
V = vehicle speed* in ft/s (m/s)
* V is speed of vehicle relative to prevailing wind speed (we
will assume wind speed of zero for purposes of this class)
Aerodynamic Resistance

 Air density is a function of both elevation and


temperature (text Table 2.1).
  altitude,  density
  temperature,  density
Aerodynamic Resistance
 The drag coefficient is a term that implicitly
accounts for all three of the aerodynamic resistance
sources previously discussed

 The drag coefficient is measured from empirical


data, either from wind tunnel experiments or actual
field tests in which a vehicle is allowed to decelerate
from a known speed with other sources of
resistance (rolling and grade) accounted for
Aerodynamic Resistance
 Table 2.2 gives an approximate range of the drag
coefficients for different types of road vehicles
 Table 2.3 gives
some drag
coefficients for
various
automobiles over
the last 35+ years
Aerodynamic Resistance

 As seen in equation 2.3, Ra is proportional to


V 2. Thus, this resistance will increase rapidly
with increasing speed.

 We can develop an expression for


determining the power needed to overcome
aerodynamic resistance
Aerodynamic Resistance
 Power is the product of force and speed, so multiplying
Eq. 2.3 by speed gives:

PRa  CD Af V 3 (Eq. 2.4)
2

or, since 1 horsepower = 550 ft-lb/sec,


C D A f V 3
hpRa 
1100

Thus, the power required to overcome aerodynamic


resistance increases with the cube of speed.
Rolling Resistance
 Refers to the resistance generated from a
vehicle’s internal mechanical friction, and
pneumatic tires and their interaction with the
roadway surface.
 Primary source (about 90%) of this resistance is the
deformation of the tire as it passes over the roadway
surface.
 Tire penetration/roadway surface compression (about
4%)
 Tire slippage and air circulation around tire & wheel
(about 6%)
Rolling Resistance

 Factors affecting R
rl
 Rigidity of tire and roadway surface
 Tire inflation pressure and temperature
 Vehicle speed
Rolling Resistance
 Due to wide range of factors that affect rolling
resistance, a simplifying approximation is used.

 Studies have shown that rolling resistance can be


approximated as the product of a friction term
(coefficient of rolling resistance) and the weight of
the vehicle acting normal to the roadway surface.
Rolling Resistance
 Coefficient of rolling resistance (f
) for road
rl
vehicles operating on paved surfaces is
approximated as:
(Eq. 2.5)
 V 
f rl  0.011   with V in ft/s
 147 

 V  with V in m/s
f rl  0.011  
 44.73 
Rolling Resistance
 Thus, rolling resistance is approximated by:

Rrl  f rlW cos  g


 However, since grades are often small, the
equation is further simplified by assuming
cos g = 1 (giving a slightly more
conservative estimate), yielding:

Rrl  f rlW (Eq. 2.6)


Rolling Resistance
 To determine power required to overcome
rolling resistance, multiply the previous
equation by speed, which yields:
(Eq. 2.7)
f rlWV
hp Rrl  horsepower
550

PRrl  f rlWV N-m/s


Grade Resistance
 Gravity, of course, can offer significant
resistance on inclines

 The grade resistance is determined simply


as the component of the vehicle weight
acting parallel to the roadway surface
Grade Resistance

Rg  W sin  g

sin  g  tan  g

Rg  WG
Example 2-1:
A 2500-lb (11 .1-kN) car is driven at sea level ( r = 0.002378
slugs/f t3 or 1 .2256 kg/m3) on a level paved surface . The car
has CD = 0 .38 and 20 ft2- (1 .86 m2) of frontal area . It is
known that at maximum speed, 50 hp (37 .3 kW) is being
expended to overcome rolling and aerodynamic resistance.
Determine the car's maximum speed.
W =2500−lb
slugs
ρ =0.002378 3
ft
CD =0.38
2
𝐴 𝑓 =20 𝑓𝑡
V max =?
Example 2-2:

 A 2000-lb (8 .9-kN) car has CD = 0 .40, Af = 20 ft2


(1.86 m2 ), and an available tractive effort of 255 lb
(1.134 kN) . If the car is traveling at an elevation of
5000 ft (1524 m) (ρ =0.002045 slugs/ft3 or 1 .0567
kg/m3 ) on a paved surface at a speed of 70 mi/h
(112.6 km/h) , what is the maximum grade that this
car could ascend and still maintain the 70-mi/h
(112.6 -km/h) speed?
Antilock Braking Systems (ABS)

 Discussion
Practical Stopping Distance

• Basic physics equation,


2 2
V = V + 2ad
2 1
(2.44)

Where:
 d = deceleration distance (practical stopping
distance)
 a = acceleration, in ft/s2 (m/s2)
 V1 = initial vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s), and
 V2 = final vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s).
Practical Stopping Distance

 AASHTO [2004] recommends a deceleration


rate of 11.2 ft/s2 (3.4 m/s2), so with grade and
V2 = 0:
V12
d =
 a  

2g 
g  G

   

Where:
 g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/s2 (9.807 m/s2),
 G = roadway grade (+ for uphill and  for downhill) in percent/100, and
 Other terms as defined previously.
Practical Stopping Distance
 Distance Traveled During Driver Perception/Reaction

d r = V1  t r

Where:
 V1 = initial vehicle speed in ft/s (m/s), and
 tr = time required to perceive and react to the
need to stop, in sec.
Practical Stopping Distance

 Conservative perception/reaction time has


been determined to be 2.5 seconds [AASHTO
2004].
 Average drivers have perception/reaction
times of approximately 1.0 to 1.5 seconds.
 Total required stopping distance = theoretical
or practical plus the distance traveled during
perception/reaction,
d s = dr  d
Example 2-10:

 Two drivers each have a reaction time of 2.5


seconds . One is obeying a 55-mi/h (88 .5
km/h) speed limit, and the other is traveling
illegally at 70 mi/h (112 .6 km/h) . How much
distance will each of the drivers cover while
perceiving/reacting to the need to stop, and
what will the total stopping distance be for
each driver (using practical stopping distance
and assuming G = -2 .5%)?

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