Chapter Three

Cellular Networks and Satellite

1
 Outline
• Basics of Cellular Networks
• Generation of Cellular Networks
• Basics of Satellite Communication

2
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Cellular radio is a technique that was developed to increase
the capacity available for mobile radio telephone service.
• Prior to the introduction of cellular radio, mobile radio
telephone service was only provided by a high-power
transmitter/receiver.
• Cellular Network Organization
– a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters,
on the order of 100W or less
– Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be
divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna.
– Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and
– Each cell is served by a base station, consisting of transmitter,
receiver, and control unit.
– Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid
interference or crosstalk 4
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to cover
an area.
– A matrix of square cells would be the simplest layout to define
– However, this geometry is not ideal.
– If the width of a square cell is d, then a cell has four neighbors at
a distance d and four neighbors at a distance 2d.
– As a mobile user within a cell moves toward the cell's boundaries,
it is best if all of the adjacent antennas are equidistant.
• This simplifies the task of determining when to switch the user to an
adjacent antenna and which antenna to choose.

5
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas
• A precise hexagonal pattern is not used.
• Variations from the ideal are due to
– Topographical limitations,
– Local signal propagation conditions, and
– Practical limitation on sitting antennas

6
Basics of Cellular Networks

7
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Frequency Reuse
– Each cell has a base transceiver.
– The transmission power is carefully controlled to allow
communication within the cell using a given frequency band
while limiting the power at that frequency
– Within a given cell, multiple frequency bands are assigned, the
number of bands depending on the traffic expected.
– A key design issue is to determine the minimum separation
between two cells using the same frequency band, so that the
two cells do not interfere with each other.
– Objective is to reuse frequency in nearby cells
• 10 to 50 frequencies assigned to each cell
• Transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency
escaping to adjacent cells
• The issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between8
• In characterizing frequency reuse, the following parameters
are commonly used:
• D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use the
same frequency band (called co-channels )
• R = radius of a cell
• d = distance between centers of adjacent cells
• N = number of cells in a repetitious pattern (each cell in the
pattern uses a unique set of frequency bands - reuse factor.
– In a hexagonal cell pattern, only the following
values of N are possible:
» N = I2 + J2 + (I X J), I,J = 0, 1,2,3, ...
– Can have the value 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19,21,…

9
10
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Increasing Capacity
– as more customers use the system, traffic may build
up so that there are not enough frequency bands
assigned to a cell to handle its calls.
– A number of approaches have been used to cope with
this situation, including the following:
• Adding new channels - growth and expansion can be
managed in an orderly fashion by adding new channels.
• Frequency borrowing - frequencies are taken from
adjacent cells by congested cells.
– The frequencies can also be assigned to cells
dynamically.

11
 Basics of Cellular Networks
• Cell splitting - Cells in areas of high usage can be split into
smaller cells.
– Generally, the original cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size.
– The smaller cells can themselves be split; however, 1.5-km cells
are close to the practical minimum size as a general solution
– Handoff – transferring of the call from one base transceiver to
another
• As the cells get smaller, these handoffs become much more
frequent.
• Cell sectoring - a cell is divided into a number of wedge-
shaped sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically 3
or 6 sectors per cell.
• Microcells – antennas move to buildings, hills, and lamp posts
– Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas, along
highways, and inside large public buildings. 12
Cellular System Overview

13
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Base Station (BS) – includes an antenna, a controller, and a number
of transceivers
• The controller is used to handle the call process
between the mobile unit and the rest of the network.
• Each BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications
switching office (MTSO), with one MTSO serving
multiple BSs.
• The MTSO
– connects calls between mobile units.
– is also connected to the public telephone or
telecommunications network
– can make a connection between a fixed subscriber to the
public network and a mobile subscriber to the cellular
network. 14
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• The MTSO
– assigns the voice channel to each call,
– performs handoffs and
– monitors the call for billing information.
• Two types of channels available between mobile unit and BS
– Control channels – used to exchange information having
to do with setting up and maintaining calls and
• with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit and the
nearest BS
– Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection between
users
• Forward channel – from BS to the mobile unit
• Reverse channel – from the mobile unit to the BS 15
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• The steps in a typical call between two mobile users within
an area controlled by a single MTSO:
– Mobile unit initialization
• When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the
strongest setup control channel used for this system
• Cells with different frequency bands repetitively broadcast on
different setup channels
• The receiver selects the strongest setup channel and monitors that
channel.
• the mobile unit has automatically selected the BS antenna of the
cell within which it will operate.
• Then a handshake takes place between the mobile unit and the
MTSO controlling this cell, through the BS in this cell.
• The handshake is used to identify the user and register its
location.
16
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Mobile-originated call
– A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number of the called
unit on the preselected setup channel
– The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup channel is
idle by examining information in the forward (from the BS)
channel.
– When an idle is detected, the mobile unit may transmit on the
corresponding reverse (to BS) channel.
– The BS sends the request to the MTSO.
• Paging
– The MTSO then attempts to complete the connection to the called
unit.
– The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the
called mobile unit number
– Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup
17
channel.
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Call accepted
– The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup
channel being monitored and responds to that BS, which sends
the response to the MTSO.
– The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs.
– the MTSO selects an available traffic channel within each BS's
cell and notifies each BS, which in turn notifies its mobile unit
– The two mobile units tune to their respective assigned
channels.
• Ongoing call
– While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units
exchange voice or data signals, going through their respective
BSs and the MTSO

18
 Operation of Cellular Systems
– Handoff
• If a mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into
the range of another during a connection, the traffic
channel has to change to one assigned to the BS in the
new cell
• The system makes this change without either
interrupting the call or alerting the user.

19
 Operation of Cellular Systems
Initialization Request for Connection

20
 Operation of Cellular Systems
Paging Call accepted

21
 Operation of Cellular Systems
Ongoing call Handoff

22
 Operation of Cellular Systems
• Issues Vital to cellular networks
• Frequency allocation
• Licensed- are reliable and offer better performance than
unlicensed frequency bands which are low cost and easy to
deploy but interference is common
• Many providers
• Multiple Access
• Many users
• Wide area of coverage
• Traffic management
• Location management
• High mobility (in cars, trains)
• Multiple suppliers
• Handoff management, roaming 23
• Handoff - Is the procedure for changing the assignment of a mobile unit from
one BS to another as the mobile unit moves from one cell to another.
– Guard channel – offers a means of improving the probability of a successful
handoff by reserving a certain number of channels allocated exclusively for
hand off request
– Usually given higher priority than initial call
– Selecting the threshold signal level is vital
• Too small – lost connection
• Too large - unnecessary handoffs

24
• performance metrics used to make the handoff decision.
– Cell blocking –
• The probability of a new call being blocked, due to heavy load on
the BS traffic capacity.
• the mobile unit is handed off to a neighboring cell based not on
signal quality but on traffic capacity.
– Call dropping - The probability that, due to a handoff, a call is
terminated.
– Call completion - The probability that an admitted call is not
dropped before it terminates.
– Probability of unsuccessful handoff - The probability that a
handoff is executed while the reception conditions are
inadequate.
– Handoff blocking - The probability that a handoff cannot be
successfully completed.
25
– Handoff probability - The probability that a handoff
occurs before call termination.
– Rate of handoff - The number of handoffs per unit
time.
– Interruption duration: The duration of time during a
handoff in which a mobile unit is not connected to
either base station.
– Handoff delay: The distance the mobile unit moves
from the point at which the handoff should occur to
the point at which it does occur.

26
 Multiple Access Methods
• Is the technique that lets multiple mobile users to share the
allotted spectrum in the most effective manner
• Since spectrum is limited , the sharing is necessary to
improve the overall capacity of the geographical area
• This is carried out by permitting the available bandwidth to
be used simultaneously by different users
• In computer networks, the multiple access method permits
various terminals to connect to the same multipoint
transmission medium to transmit over it and share its capacity
• Depending the channel type, specific multiple access
techniques can be used for communication
– FDMA, TDMA and CDMA are the most common

27
 Multiple Access Methods
• FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
– The total bandwidth available to the system is divided
into frequencies
– Is used mainly for analog transmission
– All users share the satellite simultaneously but each
user transmits at single frequency.
– Used 30 KHz for each user.

28
 Multiple Access Methods
• Pros
– Very Simple to design
– Narrowband (no ISI)
– ISI - is a form of distortion of a signal in which one
symbol interferes with subsequent symbols)
– Synchronization is easy
– No interference among users in a cell
• Cons
– Narrowband interference
– Static spectrum allocation
– Freq. reuse is a problem
– High Q analog filters or large guard band required 29
Multiple Access Methods

Example FM Radios

30
 Multiple Access Methods
• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
– A time slot is assigned to each call during the conversation, a
regular space in a digital stream
– This technology enables three different users to use one
frequency at the same time.
– Used same 30 KHz channels, but with three users sharing them
(3 slots)
• Pros
– Better suited for digital
– Often gets higher capacity (3 times higher here)
– Relaxes need for high Q filters

31
 Multiple Access Methods
• Cons
– Strict synchronization and guard time needed
– Still susceptible to jamming, other-cell interference
– Often requires equalizer

32
 Multiple Access Methods
• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
– Employs spread-spectrum technology
– Each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals
called chips
– Each station has its own unique chip sequence
• To transmit a 1 bit, a station sends its chip sequence
• To transmit a 0 bit, it sends the one's complement of its chip
sequence
– All chip sequences are pair wise orthogonal
• Generated using a method known as Walsh codes

33
• Example
– We have four senders A, B, C, D with the following chip sequence:
A: 00011011
B: 00101110
C: 01011100
D: 01000010
– Assume we represent binary 0 with -1 and binary 1 with +1
A: {-1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1}
B: {-1-1+1-1+1+1+1-1}
C: {-1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1}
D: {-1+1-1-1-1-1+1-1}
• Data Transmitters Data at the receiver
--1- C S1= {-1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1}
-11- B+C S2 ={-2 0 0 0+2+2 0-2}
101- A+B’+C S3={-1+1-3+3+1-1-1+1}
1101 A+B+C’+D S4={-2-2 0-2 0-2+4 0} 34
• To recover the data sent by transmitter C , the receiver
calculate the dot product of the chip sequence of C with
the data received
– S1.C = (1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1)/8 = 1 which is 1
– S2.C = (2+0+0+0+2+2+0+2)/8 =1 which is 1
– S3.C = (1+1+3+3+1-1+1-1)/8=1 which is 1
– S4.C = (2-2+0-2+0-2-4+0)/8=-1 which is 0

35
 Outline
• Basics of Cellular Networks
• Generation of Cellular Networks (1G/2G/3G/4G)
• Basics of Satellite Communication

36
 1G - First-Generation Analog
• Analog and circuit switched
• The most advanced 1G system in North America is Advanced Mobile
Phone Service (AMPS)
– In North America, Two 25-MHz bands are allocated to AMPS
• One for transmission from base to mobile unit
• One for transmission from mobile unit to base
– Each band split in two to encourage competition
– The control channels are data channels operating at 10 kbps.
– The conversation channels carry the conversations in analog
using frequency modulation.
– The number of channels is inadequate for most major markets,
so some way must be found
• either to use less bandwidth per conversation or
• to reuse frequencies.
– For AMPS, Frequency reuse exploited
37
– Uses FDMA
 2G - Second Generation- Digital
• Based on digital transmission
• provide higher quality signals, higher data rates for
support of digital services, and greater capacity.
• Uses TDMA and CDMA
– E.g. IS-95 (CDMA), GSM(TDMA)
• Different approaches in US and Europe
• US: divergence(difference or disparity)
– Only one player (AMPS) in 1G
– Became several players in 2G due to competition
• Europe: Convergence(coming together)
– 5 incompatible 1G systems (no clear winner)
– European PTT development of GSM (uses new
frequency and completely digital communication)
38
 Advantages of Digital Communications
for Wireless
• Voice, data and fax can be integrated into a single system
• Better compression can lead to better channel utilization
• Error correction codes can be used for better quality
• Sophisticated encryption can be used

39
 Differences Between First and Second
Generation Systems
• Digital traffic channels – first-generation systems are
almost purely analog; second-generation systems are
digital
• Encryption – all second generation systems provide
encryption to prevent eavesdropping
• Error detection and correction – second-generation
digital traffic allows for detection and correction, giving
clear voice reception
• Channel access – second-generation systems allow
channels to be dynamically shared by a number of users
40
 GSM - Global System for Mobile
Communication
• European standard introduced in 1990
• Was developed to provide a common second-generation
technology for Europe
• Several flavors based on frequency:
– GSM (900 MHz)
– GSM 1800 (called DCS 1800)
– GSM 1900 (called DCS 1900) - used in North
America
• Uses combination of FDMA and TDMA

41
GSM Network Architecture

42
 GSM Network Architecture
• The boundaries at Um, Abis, and A refer to interfaces
between functional elements that are standardized in the
GSM documents.
• Mobile Station
– communicates across the Um interface, also known as the air
interface, with a base station transceiver in the same cell in
which the mobile unit is located.
– Mobile Equipment (ME) - refers to the physical
terminal, such as a telephone or PCS (personal
communications service) device.
• ME includes
– the radio transceiver,
– digital signal processors, and
– the subscriber identity module (SIM). 43
 GSM Network Architecture
– The SIM is a portable device in the form of a smart
card or plug-in module that stores
• the subscriber's identification number,
• the networks the subscriber is authorized to use,
• encryption keys, and
• other information specific to the subscriber.
– The GSM subscriber units are totally generic until an
SIM is inserted.
– Except for certain emergency communications, the
subscriber units will not work without a SIM inserted.
• the SIMs roam, not necessarily the subscriber devices.

44
 GSM Network Architecture
• Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
– consists of a base station controller and one or more base
transceiver stations.
– Each base transceiver station (BTS) defines a single cell;
– BTS includes a radio antenna, a radio transceiver, and a link to a
base station controller.
– A GSM cell can have a radius of between 100 m and 35 km,
depending on the environment.
– A base station controller (BSC) may be collocated with a BTS
or may control multiple BTS units and hence multiple cells.
– The BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages the handoff of a
mobile unit from one cell to another within the BSS, and controls
paging.

45
 GSM Network Architecture
• Network Subsystem (NS)
– Provides the link between the cellular network and the
public switched telecommunications networks.
– Controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs,
– Authenticates users and validates their accounts, and
– Includes functions for enabling worldwide roaming of
mobile users.
– The central element of the NS is the mobile switching
center (MSC).

46
 GSM Network Architecture
• MSC is supported by four databases that it controls:
– Home location register (HLR) database: stores information,
both permanent and temporary, about each of the subscribers
that "belongs" to it.
– Visitor location register (VLR) database: Determines the
location into which the subscriber is entered.
• Maintains information about subscribers that are currently
physically in the region covered by the switching center.
• Records whether or not the subscriber is active and other
parameters associated with the subscriber.
– Authentication center database (AuC): is used for
authentication activities of the system;
• holds the authentication and encryption keys for all the
subscribers in both the home and visitor location registers.
47
 GSM Network Architecture
• Equipment identity register database (EIR): keeps track of
the type of equipment that exists at the mobile station.
– also plays a role in security
• e.g., blocking calls from stolen mobile stations and preventing
use of the network by stations that have not been approved.

48
 Components

Mobile
Station
Switching Database
center

Base Management
Transceiver
Station
• 2.5G
– Circuit switching and Packet switching
– GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
• 40 kbps data
• 2.75G
– EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for GSM
Evolution)
– 100 kbps

50
 3G - Third Generation
• Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone
network
• 144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor
vehicles over large areas
• 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly
over small areas
• Support for 2. 048 Mbps for office use
• Symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission rates
• Support for both packet switched and circuit switched data
services
• Supports multimedia services (data, voice, video, image)
• Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
• Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and 51
• 3G Technologies
– CDMA2000 1x EV-DO
• The first 3G wireless system to be deployed commercially
• Offer near-broadband packet data speeds for wireless
access to the Internet
• EV signifies that it is an evolutionary technology built on
the 15-95 standard.
• Data only (DO)
• With voice over IP (VoIP) technology, it can support voice
traffic.
• Data rates 150 kbps – 1.2Mbps

52
• UMTS
– Stands for Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System
– Europe's 3G wireless standard.
– includes two standards.
• Wideband CDMA, or W-CDMA - provide high
data rates with efficient use of bandwidth
• IMT-TC, or TD-CDMA - is a combination of
WCDMA and TDMA technology
– Based on GSM
– Uses W-CDMA

54
 4G – Fourth Generation
• Provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access
• Maximum 100 Mbps for high mobility communication
• 1 Gbps for low mobility communication (such as
pedestrians and stationary users)
• Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
– Does not support traditional Circuit-switched
telephony service, but all IP based communication
• Predecessors - Mobile WiMAX (802.16e) and LTE (Long
Term Evolution)
• WiMAX 2.0 and LTE Advanced
55
 5G – Fifth Generation?
• 2020?
• What is different?

56
• 1G • 3G

• 2G • 4G

• 2.5/2.75G • 5G

57
 References
• William Stallings, Wireless Communication and
Networks , 2nd Edition.
– Ch 7, 10
• T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles &
Practice, 2nd Edition
– Ch 2, 8
• Wikipedia

58
 Outline
• Basics of Cellular Networks
• Generation of Cellular Networks
• Basics of Satellite Communication

59
 Basics of Satellite Communication
• Satellite Communication
– Communication that involves the use of an active or passive
satellite to extend the range of a communications, radio,
television, or other transmitter by returning signals to earth
from an orbiting satellite

60
 Basics of Satellite Communication
• The heart of a satellite communications system is a satellite-
based antenna in a stable orbit above the earth.
• In a satellite communications system, two or more stations on
or near the earth communicate via one or more satellites that
serve as relay stations in space.
• The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as
earth stations.
• A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred
to as uplink,
• Whereas transmissions from the satellite to the earth station
are downlink.
• The component in the satellite that takes an uplink signal and
converts it to a downlink signal is called a transponder.
61
 Basics of Satellite Communication
• There are a number of different ways of categorizing
communications satellites:
– Coverage area: Global, regional, or national.
• The larger the area of coverage, the more satellites must be
involved in a single networked system.
– Service type: Fixed service satellite (FSS), broadcast
service satellite (BSS), and mobile service satellite
(MSS).
– General usage: Commercial, military, amateur,
experimental.

62
 Basics: Advantages of Satellites
• The advantages of satellite communication over
terrestrial communication are:
 The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds that of
a terrestrial system
 Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of the
distance from the center of the coverage area
 Satellite to Satellite communication is very precise
 Higher Bandwidths are available for use
 Basics: Disadvantages of Satellites
• The disadvantages of satellite communication:
 Launching satellites into orbit is costly
 Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
 There is a larger propagation delay in satellite
communication than in terrestrial communication
 Classification of Satellite Orbits
• Circular or elliptical orbit
– Circular - with center at earth’s center
– Elliptical - with one of the two foci at earth’s center
• Orbit around earth in different planes
– Equatorial orbit - above earth’s equator
– Polar orbit - passes over both poles
– Other orbits referred to as inclined orbits
• Altitude of communications satellites is classified as:
– Geostationary orbit (GEO)
– Medium earth orbit (MEO)
– Low earth orbit (LEO)
 GEO Orbit
• Orbit 35,863 km above the earth’s surface along the equator
• The most common type of communications satellite
• Revolve around the earth at the same speed as the earth rotates. This
means GEO satellites remain in the same position relative to the
surface of earth
• The coverage region of a satellite is called its footprint.
This is the region from which the satellite is visible.
• Advantages of the GEO orbit
– No problem with frequency changes
– Tracking of the satellite is simplified
– High coverage area
• Disadvantages of the GEO orbit
– Weak signal after traveling over 35,000 km
– Polar regions are poorly served
– Signal sending delay is substantial
 LEO Satellite Characteristics
• Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
• Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
• Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
• Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
• Atmospheric drag results in gradual orbital deterioration
• Handoffs are required between satellites
• requires the multiple orbital planes be used, each with
multiple satellites in orbit.
69
• Advantages
 A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO
satellite gives it
 a better signal strength and
 less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to point
communication
 A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is less of a waste of
bandwidth
• For this reason, it is currently being proposed for communicating
with mobile terminals and with personal terminals that need
stronger signals to function.
• Disadvantages
 A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly
 Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual
orbital deterioration 70
 MEO Satellite Characteristics
• Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to 12,000 km
• Orbit period of 6 hours
• Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
• Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours
• Require much fewer handoffs than LEO satellites.
• The satellites will be divided equally between
two planes tilted 45° to the equator.
• Proposed applications are digital voice, data,
facsimile, high-penetration notification, and
messaging services.
72
• Advantage
 A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider
footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network
than a LEO network.
• Disadvantage
 A MEO satellite’s distance gives it
 A longer time delay and
 Weaker signal than a LEO satellite, though not as bad as a GEO
satellite.
 The power required are greater than LEO

73
74
Frequency Bands Available for Satellite
Communications
• Frequency Bands
– Increasing bandwidth is available in the higher-frequency
bands.
– The higher the frequency, the greater the effect of
transmission impairments
– The mobile satellite service (MSS) is allocated frequencies in
the Land S bands.
– In these bands, compared to higher frequencies, there is
• a greater degree of refraction and
• greater penetration of physical obstacles, such as foliage (plants) and
non-metallic structures.
– These characteristics are desirable for mobile service.
– However, the Land S bands are also heavily used for
terrestrial applications.
• Thus, there is intense competition among the various microwave
76
services for Land S band capacity.
– For any given frequency allocation for a service, there
is an allocation of an uplink band and a downlink
band, with the uplink band always of higher
frequency.
– The higher frequency suffers greater spreading, or free
space loss
– The earth station is capable of higher power, which
helps to compensate for the poorer performance at
higher frequency.

77
 Transmission Impairments
• Transmission impairments to satellite communication:
 The distance between an earth station and a satellite (free space
loss).
 Satellite Footprint:
• The center point of that area will receive the highest radiated
power, and the power drops off as you move away from the
center point in any direction.
 The satellite transmission’s strength is strongest in the center of
the transmission, and decreases farther from the center as free
space loss increases.
 Atmospheric Attenuation caused by air and water can impair
the transmission.
 It is particularly bad during rain and fog.
• References
– William Stallings, Wireless Communication and Networks , 2nd
Edition.
• Ch 10
– Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, 4th Edition.
• Ch 2
– http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~jain/cis788-97/ftp/satellite_nets.pdf
– http://learnabouttelecom.blogspot.com/2012/06/difference-betwe
en-fdma-cdma-and-tdma.html

79