LOGISTICS AND INTERMODAL TRANSPORT

PART II:
OPERATIONS

SECTION I:

CHAPTER 2:
INTERMOD
AL
 01 INTRODUCTION

02 LOADING UNITS

Chapter Outline 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT

04 TRAINS

05 CONTAINER VESSELS

06 CONCLUSION
 01 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a thorough list and description of different types of locomotives,
trucks, coastal and inland vessels, cranes, reach stackers and so on, as well as
intermodal loading units, wagons, containers, chassis, swap bodies, trailers and so on.

Photos and diagrams are used with discussion of dimensions and capacity. In terms of
equipment, issues discussed include high cube and pallet-wide containers, container
owning and leasing, issues of empty container management, swap bodies versus trailers,
different wagon designs and ownership models. This chapter focuses on the most
common equipment and does not go into technical detail.
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?

Multimodal freight transport is the movement of

goods in a single loading unit or vehicle that
successively while the intermodal transport
uses two or more modes of transport without
handling the goods themselves in changing
modes (UN/ECE, 2001).
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT‘S THE MAIN IDEA OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?

The main idea behind intermodal transport is to utilize

the strengths of different transport modes in one integrated
transport chain (Flodén, 2007), thereby improving
the economic performance (Rodrigue et al., 2009). It
has been argued that economic performance is improved
because the most suitable transport mode is used on each
part of a trip (OECD, 2001).
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF INTERMODAL
TRANSPORT?

The main advantage of intermodal transport

solutions is their comparatively low external costs
(Hanssen and Mathisen, 2011).
 02 LOADING UNITS

WHAT IS THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF INTERMODAL

TRANSPORT?

Because intermodal freight transport is less energy intensive

than freight transport by road (Woodburn et al., 2007), it is
considered to be an important contribution to achieve a
sustainable transport sector (European Commission, 2009).

Intermodal freight transport has therefore been promoted by

policymakers on all levels (Macharis et al., 2011).
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF INTERMODAL
TRANSPORT?
Choice of carrier: it allows the choice to select your own carriers at every single
stage of the shipment
Reduced cost: contribute to reduce transportation costs by using intermodal
transportation mode. For example, rail and truck require less amount of fuel than other
modes of transport, reducing the cost impact considerably. Moreover, each mode can fit
the shipping containers easily, and also allows one to switch them smoothly. This
lowers the expenses because the effort to move the shipment from one mode to the
other is lesser
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF INTERMODAL
TRANSPORT?

Cost-efficient and assured quality: many companies

prefer intermodal transportation considering its reasonable price.
Over the years, its popularity is growing fast, thanks to its reliable
capacity. Another advantage of intermodal transportation is its quality
service. It’s considered one of the fastest services that assure secure and
reliable dispatch of cargo
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF INTERMODAL
TRANSPORT?

Environment-friendly: it’s a fact that moving a ton of cargo a

mile by rail minimizes carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide

emissions by nearly 83%. That’s a huge number! Intermodal

transportation sure helps reduce an overall carbon footprint during a

shipment
 02 LOADING UNITS

WHAT IS THE MAIN CONS OF INTERMODALTRANSPORT?

In intermodal transportation the cargo is shifted multiple times,

resulting in slowing down the entire progress. Additionally, some modes of
transport may be very slow or may not offer a direct route. All these factors
can result in loss of time and speed leading to slow movement of freight in
intermodal transportation
Considering that this mode of transport depends on various
modes of transit, the whole process can suffer if there’s a disruption in
one service. Basically, it acts like a chain reaction
 02 LOADING UNITS

WHAT IS THE MAIN CONS OF INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?

The risk of damage is a bit higher because of numerous shifting

and handling. Though the chances are significant – lower, there’s always a
possibility. This is when planned preventive measures can help mitigate
unforeseen risks
Handling containers is no child’s play! It needs heavy-duty equipment, such
as a crane or forklift to shift large boxes. Handling infrastructure and equipment
(warehousing facilities, rail access, inland road, cranes, etc.) are essential for
intermodal transportation but they are capital intensive
 02 LOADING UNITS
WHAT IS THE STANDARIZATION OF
INTERMODAL TRANSPORT?
 Unitized transport refers to the movement of freight in
a standardized loading unit, which may be a single consignment
of goods or may be a groupage load of smaller
consignments managed by a freight forwarder.
 The unit in question, often referred to as an intermodal
transport unit (ITU) or intermodal loading unit (ILU), may be an
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) maritime
container, a swap body or a semi-trailer.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
MAIN CHARACTERISTIC OF CONTAINERS?

Containers are secured to their transport

equipment (e.g. deck of a ship, road trailer or rail
wagon) by the corner castings, which are hollow
cubes at each corner. The corner casting is
placed over the twist lock, which is then turned
to secure the fitting (Figure 2.1). Additional
containers can then be stacked on top and
secured in the same manner.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
MAIN CHARACTERISTIC OF CONTAINERS?

Fig. 2.1 Close-up of twist-lock on a semi-trailer.

(From © selbst [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

ISO containers are the strongest loading unit, as well as

being stackable. They are, therefore, the most

versatile. The key underpinning of successful intermodal

transport was not simply the invention or adoption of

these containers but their increasing standardization.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Three important ISO standards regarding freight container

specification are:
 ISO 668:1995 Freight Container – Classification, dimension and
rating
 ISO 6346:1995 Freight Container – Coding, identification and
marking
 ISO 1161:1984 Freight Container – Corner fittings – Specification
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

While several lengths, heights and widths still remain, 20 ft and 40

ft long units remain dominant on deep-sea vessels, and containers

are therefore measured as multiples of 20 ft (twenty-foot

equivalent units or TEU).

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

The need to accommodate both increased height and width

containers has caused many difficulties for rail networks

developed in earlier times, such as the United Kingdom’s, with

loading gauge restrictions caused by bridges and tunnels that

require costly upgrade work.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
 General-purpose containers are fully enclosed and usually have a door at

one end (although different kinds exist, such as those with side doors,

vents, etc. – see Table 2.3 and Figure 2.2). They are the dominant type of

container for transporting consumer goods as well as all kinds of dry

goods.

 Generally, the goods will be loaded in boxes, cartons and cases and placed

on pallets, but goods can also be loose or in sacks, drums, bales and so on.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Figure 2.2 General-purpose containers

stacked at an intermodal terminal.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Table 2.3 Third and fourth

digit for container type
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Table 2.3 Third and fourth

digit for container type
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Table 2.3 Third and fourth

digit for container type
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

REFRIGERATED CONTAINERS (known as reefers) are equipped

with their own cooling systems for transporting temperature-

sensitive commodities such as fresh fruit. They provide more

flexibility rather than requiring a fully refrigerated hold of the

vessel to carry the temperature-sensitive cargo.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

However, they require constant power; therefore, while in the

ship, on the truck/train or on the quay, they need to be plugged

into a power source. Some have their own on-board power

source that may last several hours for an overland journey but

not the days that it may sit in a port or weeks at sea (Figure 2.3).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Figure 2.3Temperature-controlled container

loaded on a rail wagon.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?
 OPEN-TOP CONTAINERS are similar to general-purpose containers but have no
roof. They are used for transporting bulky goods and general cargo that are loaded from
the top rather than through the end door.
 FLAT CONTAINERS have no roof or walls and are used for general cargo and mechanical
goods and vehicles, both for reasons of easy loading and also because they may not fit
within the profile of the container.
 TANK CONTAINERS embed the tank inside a steel frame of standard container
dimensions so that they can be handled and transported in the same manner as a regular
container. They are used for carrying liquids and gases.
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Fig. 2.4 Tank Containers.

(From © TCC1 [Own work] [CC BY-SA 3.0]
via Wikimedia Commons)
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Fig. 2.4.1 Open-Top Containers.

(From © container-xchange, via Google Search)
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Fig. 2.4.2 Flat Containers.

(From © alconet-containers, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

FOLDABLE CONTAINERS they are some of the most

innovative ideas in recent years. Even with the additional

handling costs, the large reduction in transport costs

means that significant cost savings are possible.

02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

Fig. 2.4.3 Foldable Containers.

(From © shiplilly, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER TYPES?

At present, foldable containers are substantially more expensive

than regular containers (about double the cost – prices fluctuate,

but are in the region of $4000 compared with $2000), and enough

must be purchased for the potential benefits to outweigh the

additional complexity of management; for instance, by having

enough to bundle together and to serve customers without

requiring micromanagement.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS

CONTAINER TYPES?

Furthermore, it is not simply the purchase price itself that is the

issue; a high purchase price means that lessors will charge a

higher rental price, meaning that they must be used intensively

and not delivered on speculative routes where they may sit idle for

a period of time before being required. This idle time is already a

problem with regular containers; with a higher lease charge it

would be unsustainable.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS

CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION?
 Each shipping container has a unique identification. The previously mentioned ISO
standard 6346 was established in 1995 to regulate the coding, identification and marking of
the container.

 Example, MSKU 0803081 45G1: The first three digits are the owner, in this case Maersk, and U
is the product group code (U: freight containers, J: detachable freight container-related
equipment, Z: trailers and chassis). The six digits are the registration number for the
container, and the seventh is the check digit (an algorithm is used to calculate from the
other six digits that should produce the correct check digit).
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION?

 The four-digit combination of numbers and letters, for example 45G1, refers to the
container type. ISO codes, both current (1995) and previous (1984), provide the length,
height and width of the containers. The first figure in the four-digit container number
records the length, the second figure records the height and width (a different figure for
different height/width combinations, e.g. 5 is high cube while E or N is high cube with
larger width).
 The third figure denotes the type (e.g. G for general container, R for reefer) and the
fourth denotes the subset of that category (e.g. G0 is standard, G1 has vents). Therefore,
for example, 45G1 is a 40 ft long container, 9 ft 6 in high, 8 ft wide (i.e. high cube
and standard width), general-purpose type with vents (Tables 2.1 through 2.3).
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONTAINER IDENTIFICATION?

Table 2.1 First digit marking

for container length
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DIRECTOR OF PORTS, LOGISTICS AND SCM
SOUTHSTAR MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE, DA NANG, VIETNAM
LOGISTICS AND INTERMODAL TRANSPORT

PART II:
OPERATIONS

SECTION II:

CHAPTER 2:
INTERMOD
AL
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
EMPTY CONTAINER REPOSITIONING

In an ideal scenario, a loaded container would travel from origin to

destination, where it would be stripped and then reloaded for

export to a new destination.

In practice, there is not always an export load waiting; therefore,

once a container has been emptied, the empty box will be taken

back to the nearest port or nominated depot.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
EMPTY CONTAINER REPOSITIONING

It may then wait there for a period of time until a local exporter

requires it, or it may be sent back or ‘repositioned’ to the Far East,

where most exporting is done. Around 30% of all recorded

container handlings in world ports are empty containers. Western

countries generally are net importers, meaning there are not

enough export loads to fill all the containers that arrive with

imported goods.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
EMPTY CONTAINER REPOSITIONING

If the container must sit idle for more than 1–2 weeks then the loss

of revenue becomes an issue, and the container owner would

rather send the container to China where a load will definitely be

found.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
PROBLEM OF THE EMPTY CONTAINER
REPOSITIONING?

The problem arising from this system is that containers cost

money to move, so the more empty or unproductive moves that

take place, the higher the cost. Initially, this cost is borne by the

shipping line, but, particularly in difficult economic periods, this

cost is often passed on to the shipper.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
PROBLEM OF THE EMPTY CONTAINER
REPOSITIONING?
It has been estimated that there exist about three containers
for every

container slot in the world fleet, to account for overland movements as well

as taking up the slack in the system (Rodrigue, 2013).

Most of these are controlled by shipping lines, either through ownership or

by leasing them from container leasing companies, which provide

flexibility for shipping lines that do not want to take the risk of purchasing

too many containers.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
PROBLEM OF THE EMPTY CONTAINER REPOSITIONING?
 Shipping lines own approximately 62% of containers, and the

remaining 38% is owned by leasing companies (Theofanis and Boile, 2009).

The problem with this system is that each container is owned (or at least

controlled) by a separate shipping line.

 There have been some attempts in the industry to solve this problem

through the use of box pools (so-called grey boxes because containers

are normally clearly branded for each shipping line), but the problem has not

yet been resolved.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
SWAP BODIES

Swap bodies can be moved between road and rail vehicles, but are

not strong enough to be stacked or to be used on sea transport.

They can be fully rigid or curtain sided for side loading. They often

have the same external dimensions as general-purpose containers,

but they possess four folding legs under the frame.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SWAP BODIES?

As they do not have the same frame strength as containers, they cannot be

lifted from above by spreader cranes but must be lifted from special fittings

underneath.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SWAP BODIES?

Swap bodies are less strong than ISO containers, but they have some

advantages as they are easier for truck drivers to connect to them as they do

not have to be loaded and unloaded from ground level. Their less rigid

construction also means that they have a lower tare weight.

02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SWAP BODIES?

Figure 2.5 Swap body being

loaded onto a rail wagon.
(From Green Cargo)
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SWAP BODIES?

Figure 2.5.1 Swap body.

(From truck1, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
SEMI-TRAILERS AND CHASSIS

A semi-trailer connects to a road tractor unit but it is also

equipped with legs that can be lowered to support the trailer when

it is uncoupled. The entire unit is called an articulated lorry or

articulated truck, as opposed to a rigid vehicle that is not able to

pivot on the joint. Semi-trailers with two trailer units are called B-

doubles or road trains. Like swap bodies, semi-trailers can be rigid

or curtain sided or whatever formation is suitable for the cargo.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
SEMI-TRAILERS AND CHASSIS

Road vehicles can also be carried on rail wagons in their entirety

(as in the Channel Tunnel). This is referred to as ‘piggyback’, and

is less common than utilizing a container (see Lowe, 2005;

Woxenius and Bergqvist, 2011).

02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
SEMI-TRAILERS AND CHASSIS

Figure 2.6 ‘Piggyback’ semi-trailer

being loaded on a rail wagon.
(From Green Cargo)
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
SEMI-TRAILERS AND CHASSIS

Figure 2.6.1 ‘Piggyback’ semi-tráiler.

(From rrpicturearchives, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MEANING OF TRAILER?

The term trailer can also refer solely to the wheeled unit on which

a container or swap body rests rather than an integrated loading

unit. In the United States, the preferred term for a trailer is a

chassis. In Europe, grounded intermodal terminals are the norm,

whereby containers are transferred between trains and road

trailers or stacked on the ground in between.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MEANING OF TRAILER?

In the United States, wheeled terminals are common, in which case

containers are unloaded from trains onto waiting chassis, and the

driver will arrive with only the tractor unit and hook up to a trailer

or chassis. In Europe, the driver manages his or her own tractor

unit and trailer and only the containers are interchanged.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF SEMI-TRAILER (‘Piggyback’)

Using a semi-trailer increases flexibility compared with a

permanently coupled unit. Moreover, it can be combined with

different types of tractors specifically used for terminal operation

and transportation. It also has a better ratio between its own and

cargo weights.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF TRAILER (‘Van Trailer’)

A trailer has wheels but no engine which means that it has to be

attached to a vehicle that has an engine to be functional. The right

trailer can be selected depending upon the type of load to be

carried.

The box trailer is the most common type of trailer, and it is also

called a van trailer.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF TRAILER (‘Van Trailer’)

Figure 2.6.2 Differentiation of Units.

(From own resources, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF CURTAIN SIDER TRAILER

A curtain sider is similar to a box trailer, except that the sides are

movable curtains made of reinforced fabric covered with a

waterproof coating. The purpose of a curtain sider is to allow the

security and weather resistance of a box trailer with the loading

ease of a flatbed.

Usually, a curtain-sided intermodal container can be transported

by truck on a flat trailer or by rail on a flat wagon.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF CURTAIN SIDER TRAILER

Figure 2.7 Tractor unit connected to

curtain-sided intermodal container
on a flat trailer.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF CURTAIN SIDER TRAILER

Figure 2.7.1 Curtain Sider Unit.

(From curtainsider, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF REEFER TRAILER
(REFRIGERATOR TRUCK)

A reefer (or refrigerator truck) is a box trailer with a heating/cooling

unit used to transport commodities requiring temperature control,

such as cold chain products for supermarkets.

They can also be compartmentalized for chilled, frozen or ambient,

but current rail containers cannot, which limits their flexibility.

02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF REEFER TRAILER
(REFRIGERATOR TRUCK)

Figure 2.7.2 Refrigerator Truck Unit.

(From different resources, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF A TANKER TRAILER

A tanker is used for hauling liquids, such as gasoline, milk and so

on.

Figure 2.7.3 Tanker Truck Unit.

(From different resources, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF A DRY BULK
TRAILER
A dry bulk trailer resembles a big tanker, but it is used for sugar, flour and

other dry-powder materials.

Figure 2.7.4 Dry Bulk Trailer Unit.

(From different resources, via Google Search)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF A DOUBLE-DECKERS TRAILER

Double-deckers are trailers with a second floor to enable them to carry more

palletized goods or retail cages.

Figure 2.8Double-deck trailer.

(From Ray Forster on Flickr. ‘Double-deck trailer’ is copyright
(c) 2013 Ray Forster and made available under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic License)
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
CONCLUSION OF A DOUBLE-DECKERS TRAILER

Figure 2.8.1 Double-Deckers Trailer Unit.

(From different resources, via Google Search)
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS
AND SEMI-TRAILERS

The context of intermodal transport, and particularly for hinterland

transport, of semi-trailers and containers is quite different. This

section aims to describe those differences based on a number of

characteristics, and it builds on the previous work of Woxenius

and Bergqvist (2008, 2009, 2011).

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS
AND SEMI-TRAILERS

The context is described on the basis of the long-distance

transport of containers and semi-trailers. The two segments of

container- and semi-trailer–based transport are structured

according to the main aspects of the logistics set-up, main

markets, organizational structure and technology.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS

In terms of markets, semi-trailers serve mostly intra-regional flows, while

the main transport market for maritime containers is the trans-ocean trade.

The division is, however, not precise since the design of the latter transport

system allows for co-production with intra-European container services,

and the roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) ships transporting semi-trailers can also take

containers on semi-trailer chassis.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS

Some RoRo services act as bridge substitutes with a clear sub-contractor

role, while all-road or all-rail often constitute alternatives for semi-trailers in

longer-range maritime services. Trans-ocean container services mainly

compete with air transport although very differently in terms of costs and

transport time, as analyzed by Woxenius (2006).

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS

The development of trans-ocean container services has been driven by the

growth in international trade to and from the Far East (cf. Woxenius and

Bergqvist, 2011).

The business priority for the RoRo operators is mainly towards providing

customer convenience, while the container segment aims at achieving

economies of scale.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS

The operational activity attracting most attention is, consequently, port

operations for the semi-trailer segment and the maritime leg for the

container segment. The results are quick RoRo transshipment and frequent

departures versus lift-on/lift-off (LoLo) transshipments and hub-and-spoke

systems and well-planned capacity.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS

In other words, the focus of RoRo can be characterized as being on service,

while that of LoLo is on low transport costs (Woxenius and Bergqvist, 2011).
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
HINTERLAND TRANSPORT WITH CONTAINERS AND
SEMI-TRAILERS

The general operating characteristics are that the container segment

operates through a hub-and-spoke system with a relatively small number of

hub ports combined with feeder services to regional ports, while the lower

dependence on economies of scale in the RoRo segment has led to

maintained service in a straight line with less focus on large gateway ports.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS

THE MODAL COMPETITION

 The modal competition has led to a sharper geographic concentration in the container segment,

implying larger hinterland depth for containers; that is, they generally travel further inland from

each port than the semi-trailers do.

 The RoRo segment presents a wider range of possible time-schedule changes in order

to align the number of turnarounds between individual routes.

 Shippers would expect time precision in hours or even minutes for the semi- trailer segment,

while the container segment is less strict on time precision (maybe days instead of hours).
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION

The dwell time in ports for semi-trailers is often very short compared with

the container segment, where ports are often used to absorb the slack in the

transport planning chain or to manage capacity gaps between the container

ship and the vehicles used in land traffic modes.

The fact that semi-trailers are of higher value also contributes to the low

dwell time of empty units.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS

THE MODAL COMPETITION

Container transport is typically organized by the shipping lines, their agents or

specialized sea forwarders. For them, it is common practice to think in transport

chains that split between modes, whereas the road haulers and the transport of

semi-trailers normally plan for the same vehicle throughout the transport chain.

The planning and operational barriers for using rail are accordingly higher for

semi-trailers.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION

The physical characteristics of the container and the semi-trailer evidently affect

the technology that surrounds them. At the same time, much of the transport

technology is multipurpose in the sense that it can manage both types of load

units.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION

In general, the employed rail technology, as well as the transshipment technology,

is more complicated and costly for semi-trailers than for containers. The height

and weight of the semi-trailer require the use of four-axle pocket wagons.

See table 2.4:

Comparison between the container and semi-trailer shipping segments.

 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION

Source: Woxenius, J. and Bergqvist, R., Journal of Transport Geography. 19(4), 680–688, 2011.
 02 LOADING UNITS: CONTAINERS
THE MODAL COMPETITION

Source: Woxenius, J. and Bergqvist, R., Journal of Transport Geography. 19(4), 680–688, 2011.
LOGISTICS AND INTERMODAL TRANSPORT

PART II:
OPERATIONS

SECTION III:

CHAPTER 2:
INTERMOD
AL
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
FORKLIFTS

There are many types of forklifts, which vary according to their

functionalities and the specifications of the manufacturers. They are

used mostly in the warehouse or terminal area. In warehouses, they are

used for handling all kinds of palletized goods, sacks, drums and so

on. In container terminals, forklifts tend to specialize in moving empty

containers.
03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
FORKLIFTS

Figure 2.9 Forklift handling an

empty container.
(From Michael Coghlan on Flickr. ‘Handling a Container’
is copyright (c) 2011 Michael Coghlan and made available
under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivs 2.0
Generic License.
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
FORKLIFTS

An important aspect of forklift operation is that many have rear-wheel

steering. This increases maneuverability in tight cornering situations.

However, one criticism is its instability. The forklift and load must be

considered a unit with a continually varying center of gravity with every

movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with

a raised load, where centrifugal and gravitational forces may cause the

truck to tip over.

 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
REACH STACKERS

A reach stacker is one of the most popular pieces of handling equipment

for container handling operation in a small- or medium-sized terminal and

port. This equipment is very flexible. It is able to transport a container

over short distances very quickly and stack them in various rows,

depending on its access. Reach stackers are a much more cost-effective

option for small- to medium-size terminals, compared with the major

investment required for a gantry crane.

03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
REACH STACKERS

Figure 2.10 Reach stacker

loading a container onto a train.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
RUBBER-TYRED GANTRY CRANES (RTG)

Rubber-tyred gantry cranes (RTG) are equipment for the yard handling of

standard containers. They are a very common part of handling systems

in large ports, container terminals and container storage yards.

RTGs are an efficient solution when straddling multiple lanes of

containers. Their advantage over rail-mounted gantry cranes (RMG) is

that they can be moved to different locations more easily.

 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
RUBBER-TYRED GANTRY CRANES (RTG)

Figure 2.11 Rubber-tyred gantry crane.

(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
RAIL-MOUNTED GANTRY CRANES (RMG)

Rail-mounted gantry cranes (RMG) travel on rails to lift and stack

containers in the yard area using a spreader (or twin-lift spreader, if

needed). They come in a variety of models with different spans and

overhangs. Compared with the RTG, the RMGs have the advantages of

being powered by electricity, greater lifting capacity and higher travelling

speed.
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
RAIL-MOUNTED GANTRY CRANES (RMG)

RMG have proved particularly effective for rail/road transshipments of

large quantities, since the cranes required for this purpose must be able

to move quickly in both a longitudinal and a transverse direction. They

are also commonly used in large ports to handle containers in stacks,

while ship-to-shore (STS) gantry cranes move containers between the

vessel and the quay.

 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
RAIL-MOUNTED GANTRY CRANES (RMG)

Figure 2.12 Rail-mounted gantry crane.

(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
STS CRANES

STS cranes are large gantry cranes that are used in ports for loading and

unloading vessels at the quayside. They have a higher and longer reach

and faster handling time. A large container port will use a number of

cranes simultaneously to handle a large container vessel.

03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
STS CRANES

Figure 2.13 STS cranes unloading

a container vessel.
(From Port of Gothenburg)
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
STRADDLE CARRIERS

Straddle carriers drive astride containers or swap bodies to lift, carry or

stack as required. They are used in ports to move containers between the

loading/unloading areas and the container stack.

03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
STRADDLE CARRIERS

Figure 2.14 Straddle carrier.

(From Port of Gothenburg)
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT

AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES

An automated guided vehicle (AGV) follows markers or wires under the ground or

uses vision or lasers. They are most often used in industrial applications to move

materials around a manufacturing facility or a warehouse.

AGVs are used in some ports to produce a fully automated container terminal. Due

to the high investment and high maintenance required, the systems are still seen as not

as competitive as the conventional systems such as straddle carriers, for most of the

container terminal operators.

 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES

Figure 2.15 AGVs in operation

at a port container terminal.
(From © Henrik Jessen [CC BY 3.0] via
Wikimedia Commons.)
 03 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
VEHICLE/ TRAILER-MOUNTED LOADING EQUIPMENT

 Mobile loading equipment is necessary for small terminals that do

not have the funds to make investments in expensive equipment,
or for customers that want to rent equipment for a short-term
need and an intermodal terminal is not available.
 For example, some warehouses may not have raised loading bays
or raised storage and need the driver to place the container on the
ground, or small intermodal terminals with
very little traffic can load trains directly in this manner
without needing a reach stacker.
 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

There are many characteristics of locomotives. The purpose of this

section is to briefly introduce the main types and most commonly used

locomotives. The locomotive itself has no payload capacity but is

purpose-built for the traction of rail wagons. For the transport of freight,

only isolated locomotive power is used, as opposed to passenger

transport where the engine might be integrated into the passenger wagon

in what is called a multiple unit.

 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

The advantage is that the locomotive is easily exchangeable, meaning

that the locomotive can easily move from one freight assignment to

another by just switching wagons.

 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

Locomotives can be divided into three main types:

Electric,

Non-electric and

Hybrids.

The classification of non-electric includes fuels such as steam, gasoline

and diesel.
 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

The hybrid category contains locomotives where a diesel engine is

combined with an electric engine.

Besides locomotive design for freight transport, there are also

locomotives designed for the shunting and marshalling of wagons at

terminals. These locomotives do not need to be designed for high speed

but can operate at much lower speed.

 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

Shunting locomotives are usually also remote controlled to facilitate

operations and the driver’s opportunity to oversee the operations without

the need to sit inside the locomotive driver’s compartment. Both of them

need to be designed to provide enough traction to move several

thousand tons of freight.

 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

Locomotives that move goods such as raw materials (e.g. iron ore) on rail

lines where there is high axle load capacity can be equipped with engines

of more than 10,000 kW in power.

Figure 2.16 Freightliner

electric locomotive.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason
Monios)
 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

The first locomotives were steam powered, and they gave way to diesel

mid-way through the twentieth century. In the last few decades, electric

locomotives have become increasingly common.

Electric locomotives are the most energy efficient and provide the most

cost-efficient operation. The electricity goes from the line via the

locomotive connector.
 04 TRAINS
SOME ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES

Figure 2.17 Electric locomotive showing

location of power-connecting mechanism.
(From Green Cargo)
 04 TRAINS
SOME DRAWBACK OF LOCOMOTIVES

The drawback of electric locomotives is the need for infrastructure to

provide the power along the entire network. In countries with very large

networks involving long distances (e.g. North America), the cost is too

prohibitive; therefore, diesel locomotives remain the norm.

 04 TRAINS
SOME DRAWBACK OF LOCOMOTIVES

It is also common to use diesel locomotives in terminals as overhead

infrastructure because electricity connection would be in the way of

handling equipment.

One of the most common types of diesel-powered locomotives is the

diesel-electric.
 04 TRAINS
SOME DRAWBACK OF LOCOMOTIVES

Figure 2.18 Diesel-electric locomotive.

(From Green Cargo)
 04 TRAINS
WAGONS

In recent decades, flat wagons for hauling containers have become the

dominant type of wagon, replacing the boxcar, where the cargo had to be

loaded and unloaded into the wagon manually. Yet, many specialized

kinds of wagons continue to be used.

There are numerous types of goods wagons, categorized according to

the UIC classification system.

 04 TRAINS

WAGONS

Table 2.5 UIC wagon codes

 04 TRAINS
OPEN WAGONS

Open wagons (referred to as gondolas in the United States) specialize in

bulk goods, such as coal or iron ore, which are the traditional traffic type

for rail freight transport.

Open wagons of standard design (UIC Class E) often have side doors but

without self-discharging equipment (Figure 2.20). Open wagons may also

be of special design (UIC Class F).

 04 TRAINS
OPEN WAGONS

Figure 2.20 Open wagon with

tarpaulin cover.
(From Wascosa)
 04 TRAINS
OPEN WAGONS

Figure 2.21 Open wagon.

(From © Phil Sangwell [CC BY 2.0] via Wikimedia
Commons)
 04 TRAINS
COVERED WAGONS

Figure 2.22 Covered wagon being

unloaded by a forklift.
(From Port of Gothenburg)
 04 TRAINS
POWDER WAGONS

Figure 2.23 Powder wagon.

(From Wascosa)
 04 TRAINS
TANK WAGONS

Figure 2.24 Tank wagons.

(From Port of Gothenburg)
 04 TRAINS
FLAT WAGONS

Flat wagons (flatcars in the United States) have no walls or low walls that

are no higher than 60 cm. The kind with uprights can be used for goods,

such as timber logs and steel pipes.

Figure 2.25 Flat wagon with

uprights for hauling general cargo
such as steel pipes.
(From Port of Gothenburg)
 04 TRAINS
FLAT WAGONS

Figure 2.26 A flat wagon carrying a

40ft ISO container.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 04 TRAINS
FLAT WAGONS

Figure 2.27 A 45 ft container on a

54 ft wagon.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 04 TRAINS
FLAT WAGONS

Figure 2.28 Two flat wagons

coupled together and showing
wagon markings with technical
information on weight limits.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 04 TRAINS
DOUBLE STACKING CONTAINERS

Figure 2.29 Well car with double-

stacked 53ft US containers.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
DEEP-SEA CONTAINER VESSELS

Vessels range from only a few hundred TEU to the current largest

size of around 20,000 TEU.

TEU capacity is somewhat nominal as it depends on whether the

containers are full or empty.

 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
DEEP-SEA CONTAINER VESSELS

Over time, maritime networks have developed from direct calls

between ports to a hub-and-spoke system, whereby increasingly

large vessels transport thousands of containers between hubs,

and then hundreds or thousands of containers are transshipped

onto smaller feeder vessels to be transported to smaller ports, and

vice versa.
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
DEEP-SEA CONTAINER VESSELS

Figure 2.30 Large container vessel.

(From Port of Gothenburg)
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
FEEDER AND SHORT SEA CONTAINER VESSELS

Feeder vessels are the same type as deep-sea container vessels

but with smaller capacities to suit feeder or spoke movements

from hub ports to smaller ports that do not have sufficient demand

to have their own direct calls.

Many of these can also traverse ocean routes depending
on

weather conditions, so what is classed a feeder vessel

is somewhat relative to trade requirements.

 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
FEEDER AND SHORT SEA CONTAINER VESSELS

Short sea, as opposed to feeder, designates a direct flow of traffic

on a point-to-point routing, that is, direct trade rather than cargo

transshipped at an intermediate port. This terminology is

commonly used in Europe to differentiate between intra-European

traffic and global traffic being transshipped at European ports and

then feedered to small ports.

 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
FEEDER AND SHORT SEA CONTAINER VESSELS

Figure 2.31 Feeder container

vessel.
(From Port of Gothenburg)
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
INLAND NAVIGATION VESSELS

Barges are flat-bottomed, open-deck vessels, normally towed or

pushed by a tug, although some barges have their own engines.

As canals are sheltered from the sea, barges do not require the

same seaworthiness as short sea or sea-inland vessels, although

their use on rivers will depend on the local geographical

conditions and the level of exposure to coastal weather

conditions.
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
INLAND NAVIGATION VESSELS

Figure 2.32 Containers being

loaded into a container barge.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS
INLAND NAVIGATION VESSELS

Figure 2.33 Containers barge on

the Yangtze River.
(From Rickard Bergqvist and Jason Monios)
 05 CONTAINER VESSELS

ROLL-ON/ ROLL OFF

A roll-on/roll-off vessel, or RoRo, is a type of ship designed to

carry wheeled cargo, such as automobiles, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, trailers and railroad cars

that are driven on and off the ship via a built-in ramp for efficient loading and discharging operations.

RoRo vessels allow semi-trailer trucks to drive directly into the

ship, where they can be transported in their entirety or where the semi-trailer may be left

unaccompanied. Even containers can be left at the port and placed on dollies or mobile loading

platforms (MAFIs) and wheeled into the vessel in that way, and then picked

up by tractor units at the unloading point.

05 CONTAINER VESSELS
ROLL-ON/ ROLL OFF
05 CONTAINER VESSELS
ROLL-ON/ ROLL OFF

Figure 2.34 RoRo vessel with ramp

for vehicle Access.
(From Port of Gothenburg)
 06 CONCLUSION
KEY FACTS

This chapter has provided an overview of the main vehicle and equipment types
used in intermodal transport. However, due to the vast variety of equipment in use in
the industry, the specific types described here are only representative of some
of the more commonly seen varieties.
Students are encouraged to go online to view photographs and videos through
which to explore the wide variety of equipment in addition to that listed in this
chapter, and in particular to view how it is used in practice, such as in loading and
unloading procedures.
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DIRECTOR OF PORTS, LOGISTICS AND SCM
SOUTHSTAR MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE, DA NANG, VIETNAM