Wireless LANs

Features, Operations, Architectures,

and Standards of WLANs
 Introduction to WLANs
• Wireless LANs operate in almost the same way as wired LANs, using the
same networking protocols and supporting the most of the same
applications.
• WLANs are, however, different from wired LANs in many ways:
– They use specialized physical and data link protocols
– They integrate into existing networks through access points which provide a bridging function
– They let you stay connected as you roam from one coverage area to another
– They have unique security considerations
– They have specific interoperability requirements
– They require different hardware
– They offer performance that differs from wired LANs.

• Physical Layer:
– The wireless NIC takes frames of data from the link layer, scrambles the data in a
predetermined way, then uses the modified data stream to modulate a radio carrier signal.

• Data Link Layer:

– Uses Carriers-Sense-Multiple-Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
Similarities Between WLAN and LAN
• A wireless LAN is an 802 LAN.
– Transmits data over the air vs. data over the wire
– Looks like a wired network to the user
– Defines physical and data link layer
– Uses MAC addresses
• The same protocols/applications run over both WLANs and
LANs.
– IP (network layer)
– IPSec VPNs (IP-based)
– Web, FTP, SNMP (applications)
802.11 Standards
 Wi-Fi Certification
The Wi-Fi Alliance certifies Wi-Fi and the following product
compatibility:
• IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ad-compatible.
• IEEE 802.11i secure using WPA2™ and Extensible
Authentication Protocol (EAP)
• Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) to simplify device
connections.
• Wi-Fi Direct to share media between devices
• Wi-Fi Passpoint to simplify securely connecting to Wi-Fi
hotspot networks
• Wi-Fi Miracast to seamlessly display video between devices
 WLAN Structure
fixed
terminal
mobile terminal

infrastructure
network
access point
application application
TCP TCP
IP IP
LLC LLC LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY
 Comparison: Infrastructure vs. ad-hoc networks
infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP

AP wired network
AP

ad-hoc network
 WLAN Architecture

802.11 frames
exchanges

802.3 (Ethernet)
frames exchanged
• Designed for limited area
• AP’s (Access Points) set to specific channel
• Broadcast beacon messages with SSID (Service Set Identifier) and MAC
Address periodically
• Hosts scan all the channels to discover the AP’s
– Host associates with AP (actively or passively)
Elements of a Wireless Network
Wireless Hosts
 laptop, PDA, IP phone
 run applications
 may be stationary (non-
mobile) or mobile
network  wireless does not always
infrastructure mean mobility
Elements of a Wireless Network
Base Station
 typically connected to
wired network
 relay - responsible for
sending packets between
wired network and
network wireless host(s) in its
infrastructure “area”
 e.g., 802.11 Access
Points
Elements of a Wireless Network
Wireless Link
 typically used to
connect mobile(s) to
base station
 also can be used as a
backbone link
network  multiple access
infrastructure protocol coordinates
link access
 various data rates,
transmission distance
 Infrastructure WLAN
 Wireless host communicates with a base station.
 Base station = access point (AP)
 Basic Service Set (BSS) (similar to a “cell”) contains:
 Wireless hosts.
 An access point (AP), the base station, typically connected to a DS
 Each BSS has a unique ID (BSSID)
 BSS’s can be combined using a backbone Distribution System (DS) to form
an Extended Service Set (ESS), which appears as a single logical LAN.

ESS DS

CS457/546a
 Ad Hoc or Infrastructure-less WLAN
• No AP (i.e., base station).
• Wireless hosts communicate with each other.
– To get packet from wireless host A to B may
need to route through wireless hosts X,Y,Z.
• Applications:
– “Laptop” meeting in conference room, car.
– Interconnection of “personal” devices.
• IETF MANET
(Mobile Ad hoc Networks)
working group.
 Service Set Identifier (SSID)
• The SSID is used by WLAN as a network name.
– Unique
– Case sensitive
– Alphanumeric value
– 2-32 characters
• The SSID is used for
– Segmenting networks
– Rudimentary security measure
– Joining a network.
• The SSID is used in:
– Beacons
– Probe Requests
– Probe Responses, etc.
 WLAN Association Service
• Before the distribution service can deliver data to or
accept data from a wireless station, that station must
first be associated.
– It must be registered with an AP in a BSS, so that its identity
and location is known to the network.
• Association service:
– Establishes an initial association between a wireless station
and an AP.
• Reassociation service:
– Enables transfer of association from one AP to another,
allowing a wireless station to move from one BSS to another.
• Disassociation service:
– Association termination notice from a
wireless station or AP.
 The Association Process
• Again, each host must associate with an AP
to be part of the wireless network.
– The host scans channels, listening for beacon
frames containing AP’s name (SSID) and MAC
address.
– It then selects the AP to associate with, based
on what it finds.
– It may perform authentication, depending on
the configuration of the AP and its network.
– Typically, the host will run DHCP to get an IP
address in AP’s subnet.
 Associations: Passive/Active Scanning
BBS 1 BBS 2 BBS 1 BBS 2

AP 1 AP 2 AP 1 1 AP 2
1 1 2 2
2 3
3 4

H1 H1

Passive Scanning: Active Scanning:

1. Beacon frames sent from 1. Probe Request frame broadcast
from H1
APs 2. Probes Response frame sent
2. Association Request frame from APs
sent: H1 to selected AP 3. Association Request frame
3. Association Response sent: H1 to selected AP
frame sent: H1 to selected 4. Association Response frame
sent: H1 to selected AP
AP
 Associations and Mobility
• There are different viewpoints of mobility within an 802.11
wireless LAN.
• No transition:
– A wireless station is either stationary or moves only within a single BSS.
– Nothing special is needed.
• BSS transition:
– The wireless station is moving from one BSS to another BSS inside the
same ESS.
– Uses the reassociation service to support the move.
• ESS transition:
– The wireless station is moving from BSS in one ESS to BSS within another
ESS.
– Requires a disassociation and a new association in the new ESS.
– Upper layer connections cannot be guaranteed by 802.11 in this case, so
Mobile IP would be necessary.
 Mobility: BSS Transition Example
• H1 remains in same IP subnet
– IP address of the host can remain router
same
– Ongoing data transfers can
hub or
continue uninterrupted switch
• H1 recognizes the need to change
– H1 detects a weakening signal BSS 1
– Starts scanning for stronger one AP 1
• Changes APs with same SSID
AP 2
– H1 disassociates from one
– And associates with other H1 BSS 2
• Switch learns new location
– Self‐learning mechanism
Section Two

802.11 WLAN STANDARDS

 Characteristics of Selected Wireless
Link Standards

200 802.11n

54 802.11a,g 802.11a,g point-to-point Data

Data rate (Mbps)

5-11 802.11b 802.16 (WiMAX)

4 UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO 3G cellular

enhanced
1 802.15,

.384 UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000 3G

.056 IS-95, CDMA, GSM 2G

Indoor Outdoor Mid-range Long-range

10-30m 50-200m outdoor outdoor
200m – 4 Km 5Km – 20 Km
802.11ah -Wireless for IoT
e.g., to monitor your electricity, gas meters, industrial sensors (wind-mills etc.), hospital
 WLAN: IEEE 802.11ac/ad
New technologies introduced with 802.11ac and 802.11ad include the following
(incorporated in devices from 2011):
• Extended channel binding
– Mandatory 80 MHz channel bandwidth for stations (vs. 40 MHz maximum in 802.11n, 160 MHz
available optionally
• More MIMOspatial streams
– Support for up to eight spatial streams (vs. four in 802.11n)
• Downlink Multi-User MIMO(MU-MIMO, allows up to four simultaneous downlink
MU-MIMO clients)
– Multiple STAs each with one or more antennas, transmit or receive independent data streams
simultaneously
• “Space Division Multiple Access” (SDMA): streams not separated by frequency, but instead resolved spatially,
analogous to 11n-style MIMO
– Downlink MU-MIMO (one transmitting device, multiple receiving devices) included as an optional
mode
• Modulation
– 256-QAM, rate 3/4 and 5/6, added as optional modes (vs. 64-QAM, rate 5/6 maximum in 802.11n)
– Controversy has been raised in 3GPP RAN Plenary that this modulation rate is not suitable for any
architecture other than extremely small cells and would be completely useless to 3GPP.
• Aggregate speeds:
– range from 433 Mbps (1 antenna) to 1.7 Gbps (2-antenna AP, 2-atnena STA, 160 Mhz), 3.4 Gbps (4
amtennas, MU-MIMO), 6.77 Gbps (8 antenna AP, four 2-antenna STAs, 160 MHz, MU-MIMO)
 802.11 - Layers and Functions
• PLCP (Physical Layer Convergence Protocol)
– Clear channel assessment signal (carrier sense)
• MAC • PMD (Physical Medium Dependent)
– Access mechanisms, – Modulation, coding
fragmentation, encryption • PHY Management
• MAC Management – Channel selection, MIB
– Synchronization, roaming, MIB, • Station Management
power management – Coordination of all management functions

Station Management
LLC
DLC

MAC MAC Management

PLCP
PHY

PHY Management
PMD
 802.11 - Physical layer (legacy)
• 3 versions: 2 radio (typ. 2.4 GHz), 1 IR (Infra Red)
– data rates 1 or 2 Mbit/s
• FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
– spreading, despreading, signal strength, typ. 1 Mbit/s
– min. 2.5 frequency hops/s (USA), two-level GFSK modulation
• DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
– DBPSK modulation for 1 Mbit/s (Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying), DQPSK
for 2 Mbit/s (Differential Quadrature PSK)
– preamble and header of a frame is always transmitted with 1 Mbit/s, rest of
transmission 1 or 2 Mbit/s
– chipping sequence: +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1 (Barker code)
– max. radiated power 1 W (USA), 100 mW (EU), min. 1mW
• Infrared
– 850-950 nm, diffuse light, typ. 10 m range
– carrier detection, energy detection, synchronization
 2.4-GHz Channel Use

 Each channel is 22 MHz wide.

 North America: 11 channels
 Europe: 13 channels
 There are three nonoverlapping channels: 1, 6, 11.
 Using any other channels will cause interference.
 Three access points can occupy the same area.
 Multiple Channels
• It is possible to cover any surface using just 3
channels
 802.11b/g (2.4 GHz) Channel Reuse
• Three nonoverlapping
channels that are
available within
802.11b and 802.11g
standards.
• The goal of access
point and cell
placement is to
reduce the
overlapping of cells
that are on the same
channel.
 Spread Spectrum in 802.11
• DSSS
– Used by 802.11b
– Symbol transmission rate = 1Mbps
– Multipath spread of up to 1/1 Mbps = 1 µs does not cause ISI. For indoor applications
this ensures that the system does not suffer from ISI.
– Chip rate = 11 Mcps
– Resolution is on the order of 1/11 Mcps = 90 ns.
– Use Barker code
• FHSS
– The frequency can hop over 78 hopping channels each separated by 1 MHz.
• The first channel, Channel 0, starts at 2.402 GHz.
• Channel 1 is at 2.403 GHz, Channel 2, 2.404 GHz, and so on up to Channel 77 at
2.479 GHz (US, Canada, and Europe standards).
– These frequencies are divided into three patterns of 26 hops each
corresponding channel numbers (0, 3, 6, 9, …, 75), (1, 4, 7, 10, …, 76), (2, 5,
8, 11, …, 77
– Three APs can coexist without any hop collision, that results in a threefold
increase in the capacity of the cell.
– Hop rate = 2.5 hops per second.
 WLAN: IEEE 802.11b
• Data rate • Connection set-up time
– Connectionless/always on
– 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbit/s, depending on
SNR • Quality of Service
– Typ. Best effort, no guarantees (unless
– User data rate max. approx. 6 polling is used, limited support in
Mbit/s products)
• Transmission range • Manageability
– Limited (no automated key distribution,
– 300m outdoor, 30m indoor sym. Encryption)
– Max. data rate ~10m indoor • Special Advantages/Disadvantages
• Frequency – Advantage: many installed systems, lot
of experience, available worldwide, free
– DSSS, 2.4 GHz ISM-band ISM-band, many vendors, integrated in
• Security laptops, simple system
– Limited, WEP insecure, SSID – Disadvantage: heavy interference on
ISM-band, no service guarantees, slow
• Availability relative speed only
– Many products, many vendors
 802.11b Access Point Coverage

• WLAN clients have the ability to shift data rates while moving
• This rate shifting happens without losing the connection and without any interaction
from the user.
• Rate shifting also happens on a transmission-by-transmission basis; therefore, the
access point has the ability to support multiple clients at multiple speeds depending
upon the location of each client.
• This approach provides the highest total throughput within the wireless cell.
 802.11g
• 802.11g is a high-speed extension to 802.11b
– Compatible with 802.11b
– High speed up to 54 Mbps
– 2.4 GHz (vs. 802.11a, 5 GHz)
– Using ODFM for backward compatibility
– Adaptive Rate Shifting
• Advantages:
– Provides higher speeds and higher capacity requirements for
applications
• Wireless Public Access
– Compatible with existing 802.11b standard
– Leverages Worldwide spectrum availability
in 2.4 GHz
– Likely to be less costly than 5 GHz alternatives
– Provides easy migration for current users of 802.11b WLANs
• Delivers backward support for existing 802.11b products
– Provides path to even higher speeds in the future
 WLAN: IEEE 802.11a
• Data rate • Connection set-up time
– 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s, – Connectionless/always on
depending on SNR
– User throughput (1500 byte packets): 5.3
• Quality of Service
(6), 18 (24), 24 (36), 32 (54) – Typ. best effort, no guarantees (same as
– 6, 12, 24 Mbit/s mandatory all 802.11 products)
• Transmission range • Manageability
– 100m outdoor, 10m indoor – Limited (no automated key distribution,
• E.g., 54 Mbit/s up to 5 m, 48 up to 12 m, sym. Encryption)
36 up to 25 m, 24 up to 30m, 18 up to 40
m, 12 up to 60 m • Special Advantages/Disadvantages
• Frequency – Advantage: fits into 802.x standards, free
– Free 5.15-5.25, 5.25-5.35, 5.725-5.825 ISM-band, available, simple system, uses
GHz ISM-band less crowded 5 GHz band
• Security – Disadvantage: stronger shading due to
– Limited, WEP insecure, SSID higher frequency, no QoS
• Availability
– Some products, some vendors
Section Three

MEDIUM ACCESS
MAC Layers in 802.11
 IEEE802.11 MAC
• Two mechanisms for the MAC sublayer: DCF and
PCF
– Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• Uses CSMA/CA to share channel in a “fair way”:
• Guarantees long-term channel access probability to be equal
among all hosts
– Point Coordination Function (PCF): Provides un-
contended access via arbitration by a Point Coordinator
which resides at the AP
• Guarantees a time-bounded service
• Cyclically polls all stations which are assigned to the network
and added to the PC polling table
• Assign a time slot to them in which they are exclusively
allowed to send data
• Resides in Aps
• Correction for reducing overhead for polling idle stations
• Embedded Round Robin: dynamic classification of stations as busy or clear
• Drawbacks: Higher bandwidth waste under normal load
 DCF in 802.11
• The wireless 802.11 standard uses CSMA/CA or "collision
avoidance."
– The method is used because the wireless stations have no way
to detect collisions WHILE sending.
– Procedure:
• When a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be
sure the channel is clear (no other node is transmitting at the
time).
• If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent.
• If the channel is not clear, the node waits for a randomly chosen
period of time, and then checks again to see if the channel is clear.
– This period of time is called the backoff factor, and is counted down by a
backoff counter.
• If the channel is clear when the backoff counter reaches zero, the
node transmits the packet.
• If the channel is not clear when the backoff counter reaches zero,
the backoff factor is set again, and the process is repeated.
• If no ACK is received, the message is re-transmitted.

– This process comes with a certain amount of overhead,

since receiving stations have to acknowledge receipt of the
packets.
 Exposed Station Problem
• Collision detection in wired Ethernet
– Station listens while transmitting
– Detects collision with other transmission
– Aborts transmission and tries sending again
• Problem #1: WLANs cannot detect all collisions
– Hidden terminal problem
– Fading
• Problem #2: listening while sending
– Strength of received signal is much smaller
– Expensive to build hardware that detects collisions
• So, 802.11 does collision avoidance, not detection
• Exposed station problem:
– Aand B are communicating
– C wishes to send to D but is exposed to transmission of A to B and defers
 Hidden Station Problem
• Station A can communicate with C but B cannot detetct
signal from B, due to some obstruction.
 Virtual Carrier Sensing
• First exchange control frames before transmitting data
– Sender issues “Request to Send” (RTS), including length of data and
addresses
– Receiver responds with “Clear to Send” (CTS)
• If sender sees CTS, transmits data (of specified length)
• If other node sees CTS, will idle for specified period
• If other node sees RTS but not CTS, free to send
• The destination station responds with CTS packet.
• The source terminal receives the CTS and sends the data.
• Other terminals go to the virtual carrier-sensing mode (NAV signal
on), therefore the source terminal sends its packet with no
contention.
• After completion of the transmission, the destination station sends
an ACK, opening contention for other users.
 DCF Typical Sequence
• Sending unicast packets
– station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS (reservation
determines amount of time the data packet needs the medium)
– acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
– sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
– other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS

• Typical sequence
DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK
receiver

NAV (RTS) DIFS

other NAV (CTS) data
stations t
defer access contention
 CSMA/CA
Operation

CSMA/CA Flowchart
 Access Control
• With ACK messages
– For each frame sent
an ACK message is
required
– If no ACK message is
received,
retransmission is
done
• With the RTC/CTS
mechanism
 Exponential Backoff
• If the medium is sensed to be free for a DCF inter-frame space (DIFS)
time interval the transmission will proceed
• If the medium is busy the node defers its transmission until the end of
the current transmission
– Then it will wait an additional DIFS interval and generate a random backoff delay
uniformly chosen in the range [0, W − 1] where W is called the backoff window or
contention window (CW)
• The backoff timer is decreased as long as the medium is sensed to be
idle for a DIFS, and frozen when a transmission is detected on the
medium, and resumed when the channel is detected as idle again for a
DIFS interval
• When the backoff reaches 0, the station transmits it packet
• For IEEE 802.11 time is slotted in a basic time unit which is the time
needed to detect the transmission of a packet from any other station
• The initial CW is set to W = 1, if two or more nodes decrease their
backoff timer to 0 at the same time a collision occur, at this situation the
CW is doubled for each retransmission until it reaches a maximum value
 Contention Window Size
Initial Previous DIFS 31 slots
Attempt Frame Slot time:20s
1st retransmission
Previous DIFS 63 slots
Frame
2nd retransmission
Previous DIFS 127 slots
Frame
3rd retransmission
255 slots
Previous DIFS
Frame
• The contention window is reset to its minimum size when frames are
transmitted successfully, or the associated retry counter is reached and the
frame is discarded
 Infrastructure mode:
Power Management
• Whenever a wireless node has noting to send or receive it should fall asleep: turn
off the MAC processor, the base-band processor, and RF amplifier to save energy
– Easy in an infrastructure wireless network
– APs responsible for timing synchronization (through beacons)

• The power management in WLAN stations is critical due to the nature of

mobility afforded. Typically a station undergoes a number of steps during
power management:
1. STA indicates power management mode is on to AP and waking interval
• Most frames include power-management (PM) bit , where PM=1 means
STA is sleeping. STA indicates Listen Interval; length of its naps (in beacon
intervals)
• Larger listen interval requires more AP memory for buffering
2. STA goes to sleep (turns off radio)
3. STA wakes later; Listens for traffic conditions (e.g., first 10ms of the
beacon interval)
4. STA may request buffered frames
5. AP sends buffered frames
• Steps 2-5 repeat
 Infrastructure Mode
Power Management
• Station wakes to listen for a beacon, which includes the
Traffic-Indication Map (TIM)
– TIM is 2,007-bit-long map;
– TIM[j]=1 means that station with Associated ID=j has traffic
buffered
• Buffered packets
– Station sends Power-Saving-Poll to indicate that it is awake
and listening
– AP sends buffered packets
– Station stays awake until it has retrieved all buffered packets
Frame Control Field : Power Management

Indicates if the device is sleeping

AP indicates that there are more data available

and is addressed to a dozing station
 Throughput Degradation due to
Rate Adaptation
• Some hosts may be far way from their AP so that the quality of their radio
transmission is low
• Current IEEE802.11 clients degrade the bit rate from the nominal 11Mbps to
5.5, 2, 1Mbps
– Such degradation also penalizes fast hosts and privileges the slow one: Every node gets the
same chance to access the network
• When a node grabs the medium, it can send the same sized packet
(regardless of its rate)
– So fast and slow senders will both experience low throughput
CSMA/CA:
• Basic channel access method guarantees the long-term channel access
probability to be equal among all hosts
• When one host captures the channel for a long time,
because its bit rate is low, it penalizes other hosts that use the
higher rate
• For example if N nodes transmitting at 11 Mb/s, and 1 node transmitting at 1 Mb/s
– All the node only transmit at a bitrate < 1 Mbps !