Introduction to Computer

Science ICS 110

Intro..
• A computer is an electronic device operating under the control
instructions stored in memory that accepts input, processes data and
give data as output.
• Over time computers have evolved from 1st generation to 5th
generation where we are now.
• 1st gen computers were made of vacuum tubes, punched cards and
paper tape with programs being written in machine language.
• External storage was in the form of magnetic tapes and drums.
1 st gen computers
• Computers were very large, emitted lots of heat such that they
needed some air conditioning.
• The Abacus and the Pascaline are typical examples of 1st gen
computers.
• Charles Babbage, the father of modern digital computer, invented the
first analytics engine/difference engine.
• The analytics engine was programmed by instructions on punch cards
with the results being stored on mechanical memory
Into…..
• Mark 1 was the first fully automatic machine. It was designed by
Howard Aiken of Harvard in collaboration with IBM.
• It could perform basic arithmetic and complex equations.
• It was reliable but very slow.
Atanasoft-Berry Computer(ABC)

• Developed by John Atanasoft and Clifford Berry was the 1st general
purpose electronic digital computer
• It was made of vacuum tubes for internal logic and capacitors for
storage
ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator)
• The 1st electronic computer was produced through a partnership
between the US gvt and University of Pennsylvania.
• It was made from 1800 vacuum tubes,70 000 resistors, 1500 relays
and used 160W.
• Its speed was a thousand faster than Mark 1 but could store and
manipulate a limited amount of data.
EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer)
• It was designed by Dr. John von Neumann in mid 1940 with memory
to store both program and data hence the first machine to use stored
program concept.
• It had 5 distinct units namely:
• -Arithmetic
• -Central control
• -Memory
• -Input
• -And output.
Cont…..
• The central control was the key element coordinating all the other
functions.
• Programming of the computer was done in machine language.
UNIVAC.1(Universal Automatic
Computer)
• It was designed by Remington Rand for business data processing
applications.
• It was the first general purpose commercially available computer.
2nd Generation Computers
Cont….
• Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistors.
• The size of computers was reduced.
• Assembly language started to be used
• Concept of stored program took center stage and meant that instructions to
run a computer was contained in memory so that they could be modified or
be replaced.
• High Level Languages were invented.
• Computers were smaller, faster, more reliable and energy efficient.
• TX-0 was the first transistorized computer.
• Typical 2nd gen computers were IBM 1400 and 7000 series and Honeywell 200
Cont….
• High level languages the likes of COBOL,FORTRAN and AL-GOL were
developed.
• The software industry came into being.
3rd Generation Computers
Cont…..
• These were characterized by:
• IC’s replaced transistors and were packaged into a small chip made from
quartz.
• These computers increased in computation speed and became smaller in
size with power reduction.
• They used magnetic tapes and drums for external storage.
• Design of operating systems and new HLL.
• Commercial production of computers.
• Multi-programming where computers could perform several jobs at the
same time started
Cont.....
• HLL like Pascal and Report Program Generator(RPG) were introduced
and application oriented languages like FORTRAN, COBOL and PL/1
were developed.
4th Generation Computers
Cont…..
• The general features of 4th generation are:
• -use of very large scale integration(VLSI) ic’s
• -invention of microcomputers
• -introduction of personal computers
• -networking
• -4th generation languages
• The intel 4004 packaged all components i.e cpu,memory i/o on a
single chip
Cont…..
• Higher capacity storage media like magnetic disks were developed.
• 4th gen languages emerged together with application software.
• Computer production became cheaper while personal computers
grew.
• In 1981 IBM produced its personal computer for use in the office,
home and schools.
• Apple introduced the Macintosh in 1984.
• The IBM and the Mac had shared interactive systems and user
friendly environments
Cont….
• As computers started becoming powerful they were linked together
into networks that shared data, memory space and software.
• Networks grew from lans into wans that gave birth to the Internet
that we use today.
5th Generation computers
Cont….
• Computers are now characterized by Artificial Intelligence(AI).
• An example of AI is Expert System where computers are designed to
think like human beings.
• Computers began to accept spoken words as input(voice recognition).
• Parallel processing where many cpu’s work as one as a result of
superconductor technology which allows the flow of electricity with
little or no resistance thus improving speed of information flow.
Computer generations in brief
Von Neumann Architecture
• Dr. John von Neumann published the von Neumann architecture in
1945.
• This architecture is made up of a control unit, ALU, memory, registers
and I/O devices.
• The architecture is based on the stored-program concept where
instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory.
• This design is still used today.
Cont….
Cont…
• The CPU is the electronic circuit responsible for executing the
instructions of a computer system.
• The CPU is made up of the ALU,CU, and some registers.
• Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be
stored in a register before it can be processed.
• Typical registers are MAR, MDR, AC, PC and CIR.
• Memory Address Register(MAR)-This register holds the memory
location of data that need to be accessed.
• Memory Data Register(MDR)-Holds data that is being transferred to or
from memory
Cont….
• Accumulator-where intermediate arithmetic and logic results are
stored.
• Program Counter(PC)-contains the address of the next instruction to
be executed.
• Current Instruction Register(CIR)-contains the current instruction
during processing.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract etc) and logic(AND,OR,NOR)
operations to be carried out.
Control Unit
• The control unit controls the operation of the computers ALU,
memory and I/O devices, telling them how to respond to program
instructions it has read and interpreted from the memory unit.
• The control unit also provide the timing and control signals required
by other computer components.
Buses
• These are the means by which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another, connecting all major internal components to
the CPU and memory.
• A standard CPU system is made up of a control bus, data bus and
address bus.
• An address bus carries the address of data (not the data itself)
between the processor and memory.
• A data bus carries data between the processor, the memory and I/O
devices.
Cont….
• A control bus carries control signals/commands from the CPU (and
status signals from other devices) in order to control and coordinate
all the activities within the computer.
Memory Unit
• Consists of RAM which is also known as main memory or primary
memory.
• RAM is fast and is directly accessible by the CPU.
• RAM is split into partitions with each partition consisting of an
address and its contents both in binary form.
• The address identifies every location in memory.
• Loading data from hdd into RAM allows the CPU to operate much
faster.
Fundamental Computer terminology and
concepts
• Internet– A globally connected massive computer network system.
• World wide web(www) -A system of Internet servers that is made
from millions of interlinked websites and web pages.
• Firewall-A network security device designed to prevent unauthorized
access to or from a network.
• Cookie– A small text file stored in a user’s computer by a website that
the user has visited so that it can remember something about the
user at a later time. For example, cookies are used for online
shopping. Without cookies, login information would have to be
entered before every product was added to the shopping cart.
Cont…..
• Bit– the smallest, most basic unit of measurement for computer data
storage, represented as either a 0 or a 1. One byte is equal to 8 bits.
• Data- is unprocessed facts e.g. book
• Information-is organized or classified data, which has some
meaningful values for the receiver. Information is the processed data
on which decisions and actions are based e.g. the computer science
book, Introduction to Computers, by Taylor costs $25.
Types of Computers
• By type of processing computers can be classified into analog and
digital.
• Analog computers-data is recognized as a continuous measurement of
a physical property. An Analog computer is a computer which uses
continuously changeable entities like speed, voltage.
• Digital computers-these are high speed electronic devices that
process data by way of mathematical calculations, comparison,
sorting where they accept input and produce output as discrete
signals.
Digital Computers/Classified according to
capacity
• Digital computers can be classified on their capacity to access
memory
Microcomputer(PC)
Cont….
• These are single user personal computers
• Speed of processing is 5-20 MIPS
• Storage capacity 32Mb-256Mb of primary storage
• They are widely used in day to day application e.g. AT, Pentium
Hybrid Computers
Cont….
• These are a combination of analog and digital computers where they
combine the speed of analog computers and the accuracy of digital
computers.
• They are used in specialized situations where input data is analog e.g.
as in measurement.
• This is then converted into digital form for further processing.
Minicomputers
Cont…
• These are more powerful than microcomputers such that they have
more memory more storage and work with higher speeds.
• They are used mostly in process control systems.
• They are multiple user computers
• Speed is in the order of 25-100 MIPS
• Storage ranges from 32-512 Mb primary storage.
• In terms of size they can occupy the space covered by a file cabinet.
• They are mainly used apps like payrolls, financial accounting, CAD.
Mainframe Computers
Cont…
• These are very large computers which process data at very high
speeds in the order of million mips
• They can be networked with smaller computers, microcomputers and
with each other.
• Typically used in large orgs, gvt depts. E.g. IBM 4381,CDC,enterprise
systems, transaction processors, super server.
• Multiple user >= 100 users.
• 50Mb-several Gb of primary storage.
• Price 10Mil -50 Mil.
Supercomputers
Cont……
• Is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive computers which is
used for complex tasks that require more computational power.
• They have multiple processors which process multiple instructions at
the same time(parallel processing).
• They are used in very advanced apps like weather forecasting,
processing geological data.
• Speed 4-10 times faster than mainframes
• Several processors 60Million-3Trillion MIPS
Classification according to Purpose
• General purpose computers-These handle a variety of tasks, versatile,
and less efficient e.g. personal computer, PDA.
• Special purpose computers-These are dedicated to a specific task.
• They are more efficient because of specialized programs and have
faster processing e.g. play station, word processor.
Data Representation-Data Processing
Cycle
Cont….
• Data Collection: This is the first step which will provide the data for the input.
• Collecting data is a hard work in its own but is most essential on which the
results depend.
• The quality of input translates into quality output.
• This data might include census data, GDP or other monetary figures, data
about a number of industries, profit of a company, etc. Depending upon the
data requirement its source must be identified from which data will be
collected.
• Input-The raw data after collection needs to be fed in the cycle for
processing. This is considered the first step and called input.
• Data is cleaned to get rid it of noise.
Cont…..
• Processing-Once the input is provided the raw data is processed by a
suitable or selected processing method. This is the most important
step as it provides the processed data in the form of output which will
be used further.
• Data is analyzed for trends that assist management in decision-
making e.g. increase funding for youth projects in view of high
unemployment cases in Zim.
• In the process doing away with substance abuse and other ills like
unwanted pregnancies.
Cont…..
• Output – This is the outcome and the raw data provided in the first
stage is now “processed” and the data is useful and provides
information and no longer called data.
Capabilities and limitations of Computers
• 1. Speed-speed is a function of the number of instructions that a
computer can execute in a second.
• Computers are superfast machines that can process millions of
instructions per seconds.
• 2. Accuracy-Computers are very accurate so much that they can
execute hundreds of instructions without any errors. Human beings
make mistake when given too much to process in a given time.
• 3. Efficiency-The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age.
Computers can perform repeated tasks with the same efficiency any
number of times.
Cont….
• Storage capability-Computers are capable of storing large amounts of
data in their storage devices.
• These devices like hdd’s, cd’s and tapes occupy less space and can
store millions of characters.
• Data can be retrieved and reused whenever required.
• 5. Versatility-Computers are capable of performing complex
mathematical tasks of science and engineering and other non-
numerical operations.
Limitations of Computers
• The computer cannot think on its own but require a human element
to function.
• It can only do what it has been programmed to do.
• Computers do not learn from previous experience nor can they make
a conclusion without going through all the intermediary steps.
Computer structure-The functional units
• Comprise the following:
• Input unit-this unit feed programs and data to the computer.
• Input devices e.g. keyboard, mouse etc are means of communication
between the user and computer system.
• Function of computers are:
• -Accept data and programs.
• -convert data into a form that the computer can accept.
• -provide information to the computer for further processing.
The CPU
Cont…
• The brain of the computer system is made up of three parts:
• -Control unit which controls the operation of the entire system.
• The control unit gets instructions from programs stored in primary
storage interprets these instructions and subsequently directs the
other units to execute the instructions.
• -The ALU-executes the instructions and performs all the calculations
and decisions.
• Data is stored in primary storage and transferred to the ALU when
needed.
Cont….
• Data can move from the primary storage unit to ALU a number of
times before the entire process is complete.
• After completion, the results are sent to the output storage section
and the output devices.
The primary storage unit
• This is main memory
• Before processing starts data and instructions are fed to the computer
via the input and stored in main memory.
• Data to be output from the computer system is also temporarily
stored in main memory.
• Main memory has a storage section that holds computer programs
during execution.
Output Unit
• The output devices give results of the process and computations to
the outside world.
• The output units accepts results produced by the computer, convert
them into human-readable form and supply them to the user.
• Examples are printers, plotters, monitors.
Computer Hardware
• Hardware devices of a computer are physical parts that we can touch
e.g. hdd, power supply unit and cd/dvd rom.
Input Devices
• Theses supply data and programs from the outside world into the
computer e.g.:
• 1. Punch cards-
Cont…
• Data is stored onto punch cards/tapes using standard codes e.g
Hollerith code where the pattern generated by the holes can be
interpreted by a card reader and converted into machine-readable
form.
Characteristics of Punch cards
• Inexpensive
• Reliable
• Disadvantages:
• 1. cannot be reused
• 2. cards have to be handled and stored carefully while misplacing a
card make it difficult to rearrange them.
• 3. The cards require large storage space as they cannot be folded.
Keyboard
Cont…
• Computer keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard.
• Keys of a keyboard consist of letters, numbers, symbols and special
function keys.
• Advantages of a keyboard are:
• 1. easy to use e.g. editing input data.
• 2. offers a number of facilities.
• 3. Inexpensive.
Mouse
Cont….
• It is a pointing device used to control and manipulate cursor
movement on the monitor.
• The mouse has 3 or 4 buttons on it together with a roller ball which
shows the movements made by the mouse on a flat surface.
• It is used alongside the keyboard to improve the efficiency of the
input operation.
• It is used to highlight data that e.g. one wants to copy.
Light Pen
Cont….
• It is a picking device.
• It contains a photocell placed in a small tube.
• The photocell detects the presence of light on the monitor.
• The tip of the pen is moved on the surface of the screen to write or
make a sketch of something.
• It is useful for CAD applications.
Joystick
Cont….
• The position and speed with which the joystick is moved is converted
into digital signals by the use of a lever.
• The signals are then sent to the computer system which controls the
movement of the cursor on screen
• A joystick is used in video games applications
Trackball
• It is more of a mouse that is up side down.
• The ball can be rotated in any direction by hand which then translates
into a digital signal that controls cursor movement on the screen.
Touch screen
• A touch panel is a transparent plate which is fitted over the CRT.
• Input is registered when a finger moves across the plate.
• Two types of touch panels are optical and electronic.
Output Devices
• These allow the computer to communicate with the outside world by
accepting data from the computer.
• 1. Printer- produce an output or a hardcopy which can be stored and
read later.
Printer
Cont….
• 2. Plotter-It is an output device used in applications where printouts
of graphs and drawings are required e.g. architectural drawings.
Cont….
• 3. VDU/Monitor-Output is shown on screen using a CRT monitor or a
flat panel display.
• CRT monitor –an electron beam is moved across a phosphor coated
screen to produce the image.
• Flat panel display- is the most common LCD that does not have a
picture tube
CRT Monitor
Flat panel display
Storage Devices
• These are devices used to store data and instructions to be processed.
There is primary storage and secondary storage.
• Primary memory/internal storage-This is a section of the CPU that
holds program instructions, input data and intermediate data.
• Primary memory is also called main memory.
• Secondary storage is a memory that is stored outside of the
computer.
• It is used for permanent and long term storage of programs and
data.
Cont…
• The storage units have special characteristics that decide:
• -speed of operation of the computer
• -its efficiency
• -cost
• -amount of data which the computer can store
Primary Storage
Cont….
• Is characterized by faster access time, less storage capacity and higher
costs as compared to secondary storage.
• A primary storage comprise of small locations where each location is
assigned an address.
• Each address has a capacity to store a fixed number of bits.
• The number of bits that a location can store is called the word length.
• Primary memory is volatile.
• It is also called RAM meaning that one can randomly select and use
storage location for storage and retrieval of data
Cont….
• RAM is also called a read/write memory because data can both be
read from and written onto these units.
Read Only Memory(ROM)

• Data is permanently stored in ROM.

• Data can only be read from ROM while new data cannot be written to it.
• ROM is non-volatile.
• Start-up programs are stored in ROM e.g. P.O.S.T.
Programmable ROM(PROM)
Cont….
• These are ROM’s which can be programmed
• A special PROM programmer is used to enter the program onto the
PROM.
• Once programmed information on PROM cannot be altered.
• PROM is volatile.
Erasable PROM(EPROM)

• This type of PROM is erasable such that new data can be written onto
the chip.
Cache Memory
Cache Memory
• It is high speed memory.
• It cannot be accessed by the user.
• It is a fast memory that makes programs and data readily available to the
CPU.
• A cache is small but very fast memory.
• It is placed between the CPU and main memory.
• Cache stores segments of programs and data that are frequently needed.
• It makes available data to the CPU at a very fast rate thus increasing
efficiency.
Registers
Cont….
• Are used to retain information temporarily.
• They allow efficient movement information between various units of
a computer system.
• They receive information, hold it temporarily and avail it as and when
required.
• A computer uses some registers where each register perform a
specific function.
Cont…..
• Some common registers are:
• Memory Address Register(MAR)-The function of this register is to
hold the address of the current or active memory location
• Memory Buffer Register(MBR)-This register holds the contents of the
address from which data is read or to which data has been written.
• Program Control Register(PCR)-This register holds the address of the
next instruction to be executed.
• Accumulator Register-holds the initial data, the intermediate results
and the final data of the program under execution.
Cont….
• Instruction Register-This register holds the current instruction being
executed.
• Input/output Register communicates with input/output devices.
Secondary Storage
• Information stored on secondary storage devices can be accessed in
two ways:
• 1. sequential access
• 2. direct access
• In sequential access data can be accessed only in the sequence in
which it has been stored.
• A typical sequential access storage device is the magnetic tape.
• They are useful in applications like pay slip printing where data is to
be accessed one after another.
Types of access devices
• A. Punch paper tape-data is coded onto a paper tape as a
combination of punched holes across the width of the tape.
Cont….

• B. Magnetic tape-it is a ribbon of Mylar which is coated with a thin layer of

iron oxide material on one side.
Cont…..
• The iron oxide material can be magnetized and the data is recorded
on the tape in the form of magnetized and magnetized spots.
• A magnetic tape drive is used to read data from the tape or write
information to the tape.
• The tape drive has a read/write head to access or store information
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes
• High data density and unlimited storage.
• Low cost
• Easy to handle and is portable from one computer to another.
Limitations of Magnetic tape
• Support only sequential access
• Tapes are susceptible to dust, humidity and temperature hence
require proper storage facilities.
Direct access storage devices
• Random or direct access-In random access the data at any location on
the storage can be accessed directly without having to follow the
sequence in which it has been stored.
• A. Magnetic disk-A magnetic disk is a thin metallic Mylar platter
circular in shape.
• It is coated on both sides with magnetic material.
• A number of these disks are mounted on a disk pack on a central
shaft.
• All the disks in the disk pack move at the same speed simultaneously
in the same direction.
Cont….

• The data is recorded as magnetic spots on the coating of the disk.

• Each disk divided into a number of concentric circles called tracks.
• Magnetic disk is a random or direct access storage device.
• Data is read from or written onto the disk surface with the use of
read/write heads.
Optical Devices
• Optical disk-It is made of a rotating disk which is coated with a thin
reflective metal.
• To record data on the disk, a laser beam is focused on the surface of
the spinning disk.
• The laser beam turns on and off at varying rates resulting in tiny
holes(pits) being burnt onto the metal coating along the tracks.
• When data stored on the optical disk is to be read, a less powerful
laser beam is focused on the disk surface.
• A typical example of the optical disk is the CD-ROM as shown below.
CD-ROM