Data Communication and

Computer Networks
(ECEg 4191)

June 1, 2024
1
 Chapter 4

Data Link Layer

June 1, 2024 2
 4.1 Introduction
 The data link layer transforms the physical
layer, a raw transmission facility, to a link
responsible for node-to-node (hop-to-hop)
communication.
 Specific responsibilities of the data link layer
include framing, addressing, flow control,
error control, and media access control.
 When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.

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 4.2 Error Detection &correction

 For most applications, a system must

guarantee that the data received are identical to
the data transmitted.
 Some applications require a mechanism for
detecting and correcting errors.
 Some applications can tolerate a small level of
error. For example, random errors in audio or
video transmissions may be tolerable.
 But for text, we expect a very high level of
accuracy.
 Let us first discuss some issues related, directly
or indirectly, to error detection and correction.
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 4.2 Error Detection &Correction

Types of errors

Single-bit error
In a single-bit error, a 0 is changed to a 1 or a 1 to
a 0. In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit
has changed.

00110000 (ASCII 0) is sent, but 01110000 (ASCII

p) is received.
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 4.2 Error Detection &Correction

Burst-error
 The term burst error means that 2 or more bits
in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or
from 0 to 1.
 A burst error does not necessarily mean that
the errors occur in consecutive bits.
 The length of the burst is measured from the
first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. Some
bits in between may not have been corrupted.
 A burst error is more likely to occur than a
single-bit error.

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 4.2 Error Detection &Correction

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 4.2 Error Detection &Correction

Redundancy
 The central concept in detecting or correcting
errors is redundancy.
 Redundancy is an extra bit added in data by
sender and removed by the receiver.
 Their presence allows the receiver to detect or
correct corrupted bits.

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 4.2 Error Detection &Correction

Detection vs Correction
 In error detection, we are looking only to see if any
error has occurred. A single-bit error is the same as a
burst error.
 In error correction, we need to know the exact
number of bits that are corrupted and their location in
the message. The number of errors and size of the
message are important factors. If we need to correct 1
error in 8-bit data, we need to consider 8 possible
error locations; for 2 errors in a data unit of the same
size, we need to consider 28 (7+6+5+4+3+2+1=28)
possibilities.
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 4.2 Error Detection & Correction

Forward Error Correction vs Retransmission:

 There are two main methods of error correction.
 Forward error correction is the process in which
the receiver tries to guess the message by using
redundant bits. This is possible, if the number of
errors is small.
 Correction by retransmission is a technique in
which the receiver detects the occurrence of an error
and asks the sender to resend the message.
 Resending is repeated until a message arrives that
the receiver believes is error-free.

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 4.2 Error Detection &Correction

Coding
 Redundancy is achieved through various coding
schemes. The sender adds redundant bits through a
process that creates a relationship between the
redundant bits and the actual data bits. The receiver
checks the relationships between the two sets of bits
to detect or correct the errors.
 We can divide coding schemes into two broad
categories:
a. Block coding
b. Convolution coding.

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 4.3 Data Link Control
 The two main functions of the data link layer are data
link control & media access control.
 The data link control deals with the design &
procedures for communication between two adjacent
nodes: node-to-node communication. Data link control
function includes
1. Framing.
2. Flow and error control.
3. Protocols to implement data link control.
 Protocol is a set of rules that need to be implemented
in software.
 MAC layer is driven by multiple-access protocols.
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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

 Framing in the data link layer separates a message

from one source to a destination, or from other
messages to other destinations, by adding a sender
address and a destination address.
 The destination address defines where the packet is
to go; the sender address helps the recipient
acknowledge the receipt.
 Although the whole message could be packed in one
frame, it is normally divided into small frames. It is
because to make flow and error control very efficient.

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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

Frames can be of fixed or variable size.

Fixed-size framing
 No need for defining the boundaries of the frames; the
size itself used as a delimiter.
 An example: the ATM wide-area network.

Variable-size framing
 Here we need a way to define the end of the frame
and the beginning of the next.
 Historically, 2 approaches: character-oriented
approach and bit-oriented approach.
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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

Character-oriented protocols
 Data to be carried are 8-bit characters from a coding
system such as ASCII.
 The header, other control information, and the trailer
are also multiples of 8 bits.
 To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (1-byte)
flag is added at the beginning and the end of a frame.
 The flag, composed of protocol-dependent special
characters, signals the start or end of a frame. The
flag could be selected to be any character not used for
text communication.

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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

Character-oriented protocols…..
 It was popular when only text alone exchanged.
 Data can be graph, audio & video. Any pattern used for
the flag could also be part of the data.
 If this happens, the receiver, when encounters this
pattern in the middle of the data, thinks it has reached
the end of the frame. To fix this problem, a byte-
stuffing strategy was added to character-oriented
framing.
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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: framing

Byte-stuffing strategy
 Byte-stuffing (or character stuffing) is the
process of adding 1 extra byte whenever there
is a flag or escape character in the text.

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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

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4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

Bit-oriented protocols
 The universal coding systems in use today, such as
Unicode conflict with 8-bit characters. Thus, moving
toward the bit-oriented protocols.
 In a bit-oriented protocol, the data section of a frame
is a sequence of bits to be interpreted by the upper
layer.
 In addition to headers & trailers, we still need a
delimiter to separate one frame from the other.
 Most protocols use a special 8-bit pattern flag
01111110 as the delimiter to define the beginning
and the end of the frame.
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June 1, 2024
 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

Bit-oriented protocols…..
 This flag can create the same type of problem
we saw in the byte-oriented protocols.
 To fix this problem the strategy called bit-
stuffing is introduced.

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 4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing
Bit-stuffing
 If the flag pattern appears in the data, we need to
somehow inform the receiver that this is not the end of
the frame.
 We do this by stuffing 1 single bit (instead of 1 byte) to
prevent the pattern looking like a flag.
 Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0
whenever five consecutive 1s follow a 0 in the data,
so that the receiver does not mistake the pattern
0111110 for a flag. Note that even if we have a 0 after
five 1s, we still stuff a 0. This guarantees that the flag
field sequence does not appear in the data.
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4.3.1 Data Link Control: Framing

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4.3.2 Data Link Control: Flow &error
control

 The most important responsibilities of the data

link layer are flow control and error control.
 Collectively, these functions can be said data
link control.

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4.3.2 Data Link Control: Flow &Error
control
Flow Control
 In most protocols, flow control is a set of procedures
that tells the sender how much data it can transmit
before it must wait for an acknowledgment from the
receiver.
 Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it
can process incoming data and a limited amount of
memory in which to store incoming data. The flow of
data must not be allowed to overwhelm the receiver.
 The receiving device must be able to inform the
sending device before those limits are reached.

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4.3.2 Data Link Control: Flow &Error
control
Error Control
 Error control refers primarily to methods of error
detection and retransmission (error correction).
 It allows the receiver to inform the sender of any
frames lost or damaged in transmission and
coordinates the retransmission of those frames by the
sender.
 Error control in the data link layer is often
implemented simply; any time an error is detected,
specified frames are retransmitted. This process is
called automatic repeat request (ARQ), which is the
retransmission of data.
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4.3.3 Data Link Control: protocols
to implement data link control

 Protocols combine framing, flow control, and error

control in a data link layer to achieve the delivery of
data from one node to another.
 The protocols in the first category cannot be used in
real life, but they serve as base.
 All the protocols we discuss are unidirectional in the
sense that the data frames travel from the sender, to
the receiver.
 Classification of protocols to implement data link
control is shown next.
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 4.3.3 Data Link Control: protocols
to Implement data link control

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 4.3.3.1 Data Link Control: Protocols
to implement DLC-simplest protocol
 The Simplest Protocol is one that has no flow or error control.
 It is a unidirectional protocol in which data frames are
traveling in only one direction.
 We assume that the receiver can immediately handle any
frame it receives with a processing time that is small enough
to be negligible.
 The data link layer of the receiver immediately removes the
header from the frame and hands the data packet to its
network layer, which can also accept the packet immediately.

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June 1, 2024
4.3.3.2 Data Link Control: Protocols to
implement DLC-stop-and-wait protocol

 If data frames arrive at the receiver site faster than they

can be processed, the frames must be stored until their
use.
 To prevent overwhelmed with frames, we somehow need
to tell the sender to slow down. This is done by the
protocol called the Stop-and-Wait Protocol.
 In this the sender sends one frame, stops until it
receives confirmation from the receiver (okay to go
ahead), and then sends the next frame.
 We add flow control to previous protocol.
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 4.3.3.3 Data Link Control: protocols
to implement DLC-stop-and wait
Automatic repeat request protocol

 This protocol adds a simple error control mechanism to

the Stop-and-Wait Protocol.
 Lost frames are more difficult to handle than corrupted
ones.
 In previous protocols, there was no way to identify a frame.
 In this protocol, frames are numbered.
 When the receiver receives a data frame that is out of
order, this means that frames were either lost or
duplicated.
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 4.3.3.3 Data Link Control: protocols
to implement DLC-stop-and wait
Automatic repeat request protocol

 The detection of errors in this protocol is manifested by the

silence of the receiver.
 The corrupted and lost frames need to be resent in this
protocol.
 The sender keeps a copy of the sent frame & start a timer. If
the timer expires and there is no ACK for the sent frame, the
frame is resent, the copy is held, and the timer is restarted.
 Since an ACK frame can also be corrupted and lost, it too
needs a sequence number.
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 4.3.3.4 Data Link Control: protocol
to implement DLC-Go-back-N
Automatic repeat request protocol

 To improve the efficiency of transmission, multiple

frames must be in transition while waiting for
acknowledgment.
 To achieve this, we often use Go-Back-N Automatic
Repeat Request.
 In this protocol we can send several frames before
receiving acknowledgments; we keep a copy of these
frames until the acknowledgments arrive.

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 4.3.3.4 Data Link Control: Protocols
to implement DLC-Go Back-N
Automatic Repeat request protocol

Sequence Numbers
 Frames from a sending station are numbered.
 As we need to include the sequence number of each frame
in the header, there is a limit.
 If the header of the frame allows m bits for the sequence
number, the sequence numbers range from 0 to 2 m  1 .
 However, we can repeat the sequence. For m=4, the
sequence numbers are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,
7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7, …
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 4.3.3.5 Data Link Control: Protocols
to implement DLC-selection repeat
Automatic repeat request protocol
 In a noisy link a frame has a higher probability of damage,
thus resending of multiple frames. It uses more bandwidth &
slows the transmission.
 There is another mechanism that does not resend N frames
when 1 frame is damaged; only the damaged frame is
resent. This mechanism is called Selective Repeat ARQ.
 It is more efficient for noisy links, but the processing at the
receiver is more complex.

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 4.4 Point-to-Point Data Link control
protocol
 One of the most common protocols for point-to-point access is the

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

 Today, millions of internet users who need to connect their home

computers to the server of an internet service provider use PPP.

 The majority of these users have a traditional modem; they are

connected to the internet through a telephone line, which provides the

services of the physical layer.

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 4.4 Point-to-Point Data Link control
protocol
PPP provides several services:
1. PPP defines the format of the frame.
2. PPP defines how 2 devices can negotiate for
establishment of the link & exchange of data.
3. PPP defines how network layer data are encapsulated in
the data link frame.
4. PPP defines how two devices can authenticate.
5. PPP provides multiple network layer services supporting
a variety of network layer protocols.
6. PPP provides connections over multiple links.
7. PPP provides network address configuration.

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4.4 Point-to-Point Data Link control
protocol
On the other hand, to keep PPP simple, several services
are missing:
1. PPP does not provide flow control.
2. PPP has a very simple mechanism for error control. A
CRC (cyclic redundancy check) field is used to detect
errors. If the frame is corrupted, it is silently discarded;
the upper-layer protocol needs to take care of the
problem.
3. PPP does not provide a sophisticated addressing
mechanism to handle frames in a multipoint
configuration.

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 4.4 Point-to-Point Data Link control
protocol
Framing
PPP is a byte-oriented protocol using byte stuffing with the
escape byte 01111101. Framing is done according to the
byte-oriented protocols.

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 4.4 Point-to-Point Data Link control
protocol
The description of each field is as follows:
 Flag: Bit pattern 01111110.
 Address: A constant value and set to 11111111
(broadcast address). It can be omitted.
 Control: Set to the constant value 11000000. It can also
be omitted.
 Protocol: The protocol field defines what is being carried
in the data field.
 Payload field: This field carries either the user data or
other information.
 FCS (frame check sequence): This is for cyclic
redundancy check (CRC).
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 4.5 Multiple Access Protocols
 If we have a dedicated link as like PPP, then we do not
need multiple access protocols.
 On the other hand, if we use our cellular phone to
connect to another cellular phone, the channel is not
dedicated. A person a few feet away from us may be
using the same channel to talk to her friend. In such
case we need multiple access protocol.
 The upper sub-layer is responsible for data link control,
and the lower sub-layer is responsible for resolving
access to the shared media.

June 1, 2024 40
 4.5 Multiple Access Protocols

 The IEEE has made this division for LANs.

 The upper sub-layer, responsible for flow & error control is
called the logical link control (LLC) layer.
 The lower sub-layer that is mostly responsible for multiple-
access resolution is called the media access control
(MAC) layer.

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 4.5 Multiple Access Protocols
When nodes or stations are connected and use a
common link, called a multipoint or broadcast
link, we need a multiple-access protocol to
coordinate access to the link. We categorize them
into three groups.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
 The LAN market has seen several technologies such as
Ethernet, Token Ring, Token Bus, FDDI (fiber distributed
data interface), & ATM LAN. Some of these technologies
survived for a while, but Ethernet is by far the dominant.
 The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox's Palo
Alto Research Center (PARC). Since then, it has gone
through four generations: Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps),
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (l Gbps), and
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (l0 Gbps).

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet

June 1, 2024 44
 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a
PC, workstation, or printer) has its own network
interface card (NIC). The NIC fits inside the station
and provides the station with a 6-byte physical
address.

June 1, 2024 45
 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Standard Ethernet
In Standard Ethernet, the MAC sub-layer governs the
operation of the access method. It also frames data
received from the upper layer and passes them to the
physical layer.
The evolution of the Standard Ethernet
 10Base5 (Thick Ethernet or Thicknet): The first
implementation. The nickname derives from the size of
the cable. It is the first Ethernet specification to use a bus
topology with an external transceiver
(transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a thick
coaxial cable.
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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Standard Ethernet…..
 10Base2 (Thin Ethernet or Cheapernet): The 2nd
implementation. It also uses a bus topology, but the
cable is much thinner and flexible. The cable can be
bent to pass very close to the stations. In this case, the
transceiver is normally part of the network interface card
(NIC), which is installed inside the station.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Standard Ethernet…..
 10Base-T (Twisted-Pair Ethernet): The third
implementation. It uses a physical star topology. The
stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted
cable. Note that two pairs of twisted cable create two
paths (one for sending and one for receiving) between
the station and the hub. The maximum length of the
twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize the
effect of attenuation in the twisted cable.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Standard Ethernet…..
 10Base-F (Fiber Ethernet): This is 10 Mbps Ethernet
for optical fiber. l0Base-F uses a star topology to connect
stations to a hub. The stations are connected to the hub
using two fiber-optic cables.

 Bridged Ethernet: The first step in the Ethernet

evolution was the division of a LAN by bridges. Bridges
have two effects on an Ethernet LAN: They raise the
bandwidth and they separate collision domains.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Standard Ethernet…..
 Switched Ethernet: The idea of a bridged LAN can be
extended to a switched LAN. Instead of having two to
four networks, why not have N networks, where N is
the number of stations on the LAN? In other words, if
we can have a multiple-port bridge, why not have an N-
port switch? In this way, the bandwidth is shared only
between the station and the switch (5 Mbps each). In
addition, the collision domain is divided into N
domains. A layer 2 switch is an N-port bridge with
additional sophistication that allows faster handling of
the packets.
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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Standard Ethernet…..
 Full-Duplex Ethernet: One of the limitations of 10Base5
and l0Base2 is that communication is half-duplex (l0Base-
T is always full-duplex). The next step in the evolution was
to move from switched Ethernet to full-duplex switched
Ethernet. The full-duplex mode increases the capacity of
each domain from 10 to 20 Mbps. Note that instead of
using one link between the station and the switch, the
configuration uses two links: one to transmit and one to
receive.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols
such as FDDI (fiber distributed data interface) or Fiber
Channel.
 IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u.
 The goals of Fast Ethernet is summarized:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
3. Keep the same 48-bit address.
4. Keep the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Fast Ethernet…..
MAC Sublayer: A main consideration in the evolution of
Ethernet from 10 to 100 Mbps was to keep the MAC sub-
layer untouched. However, a decision was made to drop
the bus topologies and keep only the star topology.
The access method is the same (CSMA/CD) for the half-
duplex approach; for full duplex Fast Ethernet, there is no
need for CSMA/CD. However, the implementations keep
CSMA/CD for backward compatibility with Standard
Ethernet.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet

Fast Ethernet…..
Autonegotiation: A new feature added to Fast
Ethernet is called autonegotiation. It allows a station
or a hub a range of capabilities. Autonegotiation
allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate
of operation. It was designed particularly for the
following purposes:
o To allow incompatible devices to connect to one
another.
o To allow one device to have multiple capabilities.
o To allow a station to check a hub's capabilities.

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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
The IEEE committee calls the Standard 802.3z. The goals
are:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.
2. Compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. It supports autonegotiation.

Almost all implementations of Gigabit Ethernet follow the

full-duplex approach.
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 4.6 Wired LANs: The Ethernet
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet
The IEEE committee created Ten-Gigabit Ethernet and
called it Standard 802.3ae. The goals are:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 10 Gbps.
2. Backward compatible.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. Allow the interconnection of existing LANs into a MAN
or a WAN.
7. Compatible with Frame Relay and ATM.
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet operates only in full duplex mode.
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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
 LANs are connected to one another or to the
internet.
 To connect LANs, or segments of LANs, we use
connecting devices.
 Connecting devices can operate in different
layers of the internet model.
 Connecting devices can be divided into five
different categories based on the layer in which
they operate in a network.

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
The five categories contain devices which can be defined
as
1. Those which operate below the physical layer such
as a passive hub.
2. Those which operate at the physical layer (a repeater
or an active hub).
3. Those which operate at the physical and data link
layers (a bridge or a two-layer switch).
4. Those which operate at the physical, data link, and
network layers (router or 3-layer switch).
5. Those which can operate at all five layers (a
gateway).
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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Passive Hubs
 It is just a connector. It connects the wires
coming from different branches. In a star-
topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a
point where the signals coming from different
stations collide; the hub is the collision point.
This type of hub is part of the media; its location
in the internet model is below the physical layer.

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Repeaters
 A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes
too weak or corrupted, regenerates the original bit
pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.
 It can extend the physical length of a LAN.
 A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it
connects two segments of the same LAN.
 It can overcome the Ethernet length restriction.
 A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering
capability.
 A repeater is a regenerator as well, not an amplifier.

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Active Hubs
 An active hub is actually a multipart repeater.
 It is normally used to create connections
between stations in a physical star topology.
 Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels
of hierarchy.

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Bridges
 As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it
receives.
 As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the
physical (MAC) addresses (source and destination)
contained in the frame.
 A bridge has filtering capability as well. It can check
the destination address of a frame and decide if the
frame should be forwarded or dropped.
 If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must
specify the port. A bridge has a table that maps
addresses to ports.
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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices

June 1, 2024 65
 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Transparent Bridges
 It is a bridge in which the stations are completely unaware
of the bridge's existence.
 If a bridge is added or deleted from the system,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary.
 According to the IEEE 802.1d specification, a system
equipped with transparent bridges must meet three criteria:
1. Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.
2. The forwarding table is automatically made by learning
frame movements.
3. Loops in the system must be prevented.

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Source Routing Bridges
 This is another way to prevent loops in a system with
redundant bridges.
 Duties like filtering frames, forwarding, and blocking are
performed by the source station and, to some extent, the
destination station.
 The frame contains not only the source and destination
addresses, but also the addresses of all bridges to be visited.
 The source gets these bridge addresses through the
exchange of special frames.
 This bridges were designed by IEEE to be used with Token
Ring LANs. Not common today.
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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Two-Layer Switches
 A two-layer switch is a bridge, a bridge with many ports
and a design that allows better (faster) performance.
 A two-layer switch, as a bridge does, makes a filtering
decision based on the MAC address of the frame it
received.
 It can have a buffer to hold the frames for processing.
 It can have a switching factor that forwards the
frames faster. For example, cut-through switches (new
two-layer switch).

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Routers
 A router is a three-layer device that routes packets
based on their logical addresses.
 A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the
Internet and has a routing table that is used for
making decisions about the route.
 The routing tables are normally dynamic and are
updated using routing protocols.

Three-Layer Switches
 A three-layer switch is a router, but a faster and more
sophisticated.
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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices

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 4.7 Interconnecting Devices
Gateway
 The terms gateway and router used interchangeably.
 A gateway is normally a computer (server) that
operates in all five layers of the Internet.
 A gateway takes an application message, reads it,
and interprets it.
 A network designed to use the OSI model can be
connected to another network using the Internet
model by using Gateway.
 Gateways can provide security, and also used to filter
unwanted application-layer messages.

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 Thank You

For Attending
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