Theory of machines and mechanisms

Exit Exam Tutorial

By wasihun w.
•A machine is a device which receives energy and transforms it into some
useful work. A machine consists of a number of parts or bodies.
1. Basic Definitions:

• Link: - a rigid body having two or more pairing elements to be

connected to other bodies,
• - each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part,
• - a link may consist of several parts, which are rigidly connected, with no
relative motion.
• Types of links:
 Rigid link: a link with no deformation (neglecting smaller ones) while
transforming motion.
- Simple rigid link: has two pairing elements,
• Compound rigid link: more than two pairing elements
 Simple link Compound link

Flexible link: a link with some deformation without affection the transmission of
motion,
For Example: belts, ropes, chains and wires are flexible links and transmit tensile forces
only.
Fluid link: is a link formed by having a fluid in a receptacle and the motion is
transmitted through the fluid by pressure
Kinematic Pair: is a pair of rigid bodies or links permanently kept in contact with
relative motion,
- joined by pairing elements which allow relative motion,
- can have a maximum of five DOF (Degree of Freedom) & a minimum of
one DOF,
- the relative motion b/n links in a kinematic pair is completely or successfully constrained
 • Types of Constrained Motions:
a) Completely constrained motion: when the motion b/n links in a pair is in a
definite direction.

b) Incompletely constrained motion: when the motion b/n links in a pair is in more
than one direction.

Shaft in a circular hole (it may rotate or slide

b) Successfully constrained motion: the constrain b/n links in a pair is not

completed by itself, but by some other means,

Shaft in a foot step bearing (it may rotate

or moves up-ward but if a load is
applied to prevent the up-ward
motion, it will be successfully constrained)
For example: motion of an IC engine valve
is a successfully constrained motion
 • Classification of Kinematic Pairs:
i) According to the type of relative motion between the links:
j) Turning pair or revolute joint or pin joint: permits one link or member to rotate
about an axis of the other link. => one DOF
• Examples: A shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a circular hole, the crankshaft in a journal bearing in an
engine, lathe spindle supported in head stock, cycle wheels turning over their axles.

b)Sliding pair or prismatic joint: allows one link to translate/slide along the axis of
other link. => one DOF
• Examples: The piston and cylinder, cross-head and guides of a reciprocating steam engine, ram and its guides in
shaper, tail stock on the lathe bed, etc.

c)Rolling pair: one of the elements of a pair rolls over the other. => 1 or 3 DOF
• Examples: Ball and roller bearings.

d)Screw pair: one element of a pair turn over the other by screw threads. => Two DOF
• Examples: The lead screw of a lathe with nut, and bolt with a nut.

e)Cylindrical pair: allows rotation and translation about an axis. => Two DOF
• Example: a shaft in a circular hole.

f) Spherical pair: allows rotation in space about three axes. => Three DOF
• Examples: The ball and socket joint, attachment of a car mirror, etc.
ii) According to the type of contact between the links:
a) Lower pair: when links of a pair have surface contact (motion is sliding)
- Sliding pairs, turning pairs and screw pairs form lower pairs.

b) Higher pair: when links of a pair have point or line contact (motion is partly turning and
partly sliding)
• Examples: toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and roller bearings and cam and follower.

ii) According to the type of closure:

a) Self-closed pair: when the elements of a pair are connected mechanically.
- The lower pairs are self closed pairs

b) Force-closed pair: when the elements of a pair are not connected mechanically but are
kept in contact by the action of external forces.
• Example: The cam & follower, as it is kept in contact by the forces exerted by spring and gravity.

ii) According to the degree of freedom:

a) Class I joints: allow one DOF
b) Class II joints: allow two DOF
c) Class II joints: allow three DOF, and so on.
Kinematic Chain: the arrangement of kinematic pairs in a chain fashion which permits relative motion
between links.
Classification of kinematic chains:
i) Open-loop kinematic chain: links are composed without closed branches.
ii) Closed-loop kinematic chain: when the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is
joined to the first link to transmit definite motion.
• Example: an IC engine.
• Equations for kinematic chains:
• l = 2 p – 4 ------------------------------------------------------- (1)
• Where p = number of pair and
• l = number of link
• j = l – 2 ------------------------------------------------------- (2)
• Where j = number of joints and
• l = number of link
• These equations are mostly applicable for kinematic chains composed of lower pairs.

•Structure: it is an assembly of a number of links connected with no relative motion for carrying loads.
• Examples: A railway bridge, a roof truss, machine frames etc.
•Mechanism: When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as
mechanism.
Example: a slider-crank mechanism as shown bellow.

•Inversion: if, in a mechanism, the link which was originally fixed is allowed to move and
another link becomes fixed, the mechanism is called inverted.

Degrees of Freedom (DOF) /Movabillity/

• The minimum number of independent coordinates required to fully describe the
configuration of mechanism is called the number of degrees of freedom

•Motion

Motion is a time series of displacements between successive positions of point or particle

 Types of motion
a) Rectilinear motion: along a straight line and no rotation.
b) Curvilinear motion: along a curved path
c) Plane motion: motion in a plane. It can be translation, rotary, or a combination of
both.
d) Helical motion: rotation about an axis and at the same time translation parallel to
the axis.
e) Spherical motion: when a body moves so that each point on the body remains at a
constant distance from the fixed point.
f) Spatial motion: motion in space. Helical and spherical motions are special cases of
space motion
 1. Transmission of motion

•Motion can be transmitted from one member to another in three ways:

a) By direct contact between two members;

b) Through an intermediate link or a connecting rod; and

c) By a flexible connector such as belt or chain .

 Translation, rotation and complex motion(Review)

• Translation all points in the bodies have the

same displacement.
• Rotation different point in the body undergo
different displacements.
• Complex motion is the sum of translation
and rotation.

Rotation Translation + Rotation

Translation

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 11

 Position Analysis Basic Linkages
• Position analysis of basic linkages that have frequent applications in
various machines.
2.1 Four-bar Linkage
• Conventional numbering system: ground or frame is link and then to
number links in clockwise (cw).
• Four links are joined by four revolute joint.
• Its able to produce a variety of non-uniform motion and can transmit
large forces.
• The links of a four-bar mechanism should be proportioned in such a way
that locking is avoided
Link-1 (ground or frame)-stationary
Link-2 (driver)-either rotate or oscillate
Link-3 (coupler or connecting rod)-
plane motion
Link-4 (follower or driven element)-
may rotate or oscillate depends on link-2
motion and link dimension

Figure *
05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 12
 Motion of a four-bar mechanism
• The type of motion that a four-bar linkage executes
depends on the proportional size of its links.
• There are three basic types of motion which a four-
bar linkage can produce.
• Crank-rocker to indicate that link 2 rotates and link 4
oscillates;
• Double crank to indicate that both the driver and follower
rotate; and
• Double-rocker to indicate that both the driver and follower
oscillate through certain angles.
• Grashoff’s law-to determine whether a four-bar
link will operate as a crank-rocker, a double-crank
or a double-rocker.
05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 13
 Cont.….
• If :
– Two different crank rockers -when the shortest link is the crank and
either of the adjacent links is the fixed link;
– Double crank -when the shortest link is the fixed link;
– Double rocker-when the link opposite the shortest link is the fixed link.
• If :
– only a double-rocker mechanism will be formed.

Variation of four bar mechanism

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 14
 Slider crank mechanism

• It is four-bar mechanism with three revolute joints

and a prismatic joint.
• Converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion
and vice-versa.
• Commonly applied in internal combustion engines,
• During a cycle there are two dead points A ' and A "
in which the crank and the connecting rod are in line.

link I is the frame- fixed;

link 2 is the crank -driver;
link 3 is the connecting rod
link 4 is the slider -driven element.

Slider crank mechanism

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 15
 Inversion of the Slider-crank mechanism
• Inversion-mechanism formed by fixing one of the links of the kinematic
chain.
• Possible number of inversion is equal to number of original link.
• It does not change the relative motion of the links, however, the absolute
motion is altered.
• In the slider crank mechanism, by fixing links other than link I, it is
possible to obtain three other inversions mechanism.

Whitworth Rotary engine or

quick-return an oscillating
mechanism engine

Bull-engine
05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 16
 Some other Mechanism
1. The Scotch Yoke
• Sine cosine generator
• Used to produce harmonic motion
• It is used to produce required vibration

The displacement of the slider x in moving form A to A ' is given

by:
𝑥=𝑟 −𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃=𝑟 ( 1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ) , 𝜃=𝜔 𝑡

The velocity of the follower and the acceleration is:

𝑑𝑥 a
𝑣= =𝑟 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑡

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 17

 Quick return mechanism
• It give a quick return-stroke of the follower for a constant angular velocity
of the driver.
• Time ratio-the ratio of the crank angle for the working stroke to that of the
return stroke.
• The time-ratio for quick-return mechanisms is always greater than unity
to give a slower cutting stroke and a faster return stroke.
Crank shaper mechanism
• Cutting stroke
occurs when the
crank rotates from
O2A’to O2A"
through an angle ,
• Idle stroke being
when the crank
moves from O2A"
to O2A’ through
the angle
05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 18
 Drag linkage

• Developed by connecting two four-bar linkage in series.

• For a constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will
rotate at a non-uniform velocity.
• For a clockwise rotation of link 2 the cutting stroke
makes an angle (C '02C") and the return stroke makes
an angle

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 19

 Whitworth mechanism

• It is commonly used in shaping and slotting machines.

• When the driving link O2B moves from O2B" through an angle .
for the cutting stroke, the cutting tool D moves from D ' to D ".
• When the link 02B moves from 02B" to 02B 'through an angle
for the return stroke, D moves from D" to D '.
• The time ratio is give by:

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 20

 Toggle Mechanisms
• A simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in a
straight line at one point in their motion.
• It is used in punch presses, riveting machines, stone crushers,
etc.
• As the angle a approaches , the links CA and AB come into
toggle.
• Mechanical advantage - velocity ratio of the input point A to the
output point B

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 21

 Stone crusher, punch press and cold
heading rivet machine.
• Stone crusher-uses two toggle linkages in series to obtain a high
mechanical advantage. (for high crushing force)
• Punch press-The large punching force needed is obtained when the
crank O2A. and connecting rod AB come into toggle
• Heading rivet-is designed so as to give each rivet two successive blows.

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 22

 Straight line mechanism

• These are mechanisms which can generate straight lines from rotary
motion.
1. Watt mechanisms
2. Evans' Linkage
3. Tchebichefrs mechanism
4. Peaucillier inversor
5. The Tchebicheff Combination of the Watt and Evans mechanisms
6. D - drive mechanism

It is used as a film advancing mechanism in

movie-film projectors
05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 23
 Parallel Mechanisms
• These mechanism's are employed for producing parallel
motions and reproducing motions at different scales.
1. The Pantograph
2. The Drafting Machine

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 24

 Intermittent Motion Mechanisms
• These mechanisms convert continuous motion into intermittent
motion.
1. Geneva Mechanism
2. Ratchet Mechanism
6. Steering Gear Mechanism
Is used to change the direction of the wheel axle with respect to the
chassis which enables motion of an automobile in any desired direction.

05/27/2024 By Galana A.(M.Sc.) 25

 Kinematics of mechanisms

• Using vector mathematics

• Using relative motion
• Using instantaneous center method
 Example
• In the slider crank mechanism shown below the crank rotates at a constant angular
velocity of 10 Determine the velocity of the slider B and the angular velocity of
the connecting rod for the phase when =60
• 02A= 150mm , AB = 600mm
 Solution

• From the geometry

• For =60 ,
VB= VA +VB/A

VA = 02A
VA = 4712.4mm/s Ans.
Using the sine law:
= = VB = 4603.4mm/s . Ans.

= = VB/A = 2413.4mm/s. Ans.

= 4.02rad/s Ans.
kinetic mechanisms
 Solution using Newton’s Law
• Newton’s Law:
   
 F  maG  M G  I G
• For planar motion we have:

F x  max Fy  ma y M G  I g
 Center of Percussion
• The center of percussion (P) is a point on a
body which, when struck with a force, will have
associated with it another point called the center
of rotation (R) at which there will be a zero
reaction force
F  maG Fl p  I G
ai/G
aG  F / m R
P

  Fl p / I G ai

ai / G  ri aG

ai  aG  ai / G
 Single Link in Pure Rotation
• From free body diagram:
SF=m2a=FP+F12
ST=Iga=T12
+(R12F12)+(RPFP)
• Breaking down into components:
SFx=m2ax=FPx+F12x
SFy=m2ay=FPy+F12y
ST=Iga=T12
+(R12xF12y-R12yF12x)
+(RPxFPy-RPyFPx)
 Single Link in Pure Rotation
SFx=m2ax=FPx+F12x
SFy=m2ay=FPy+F12y
ST=Iga=T12+(R12xF12y-R12yF12x)
+(RPxFPy-RPyFPx)
• Putting into a matrix format
 1 0 0  F12 x   m2 aGx  FPx 
    
 0 1 0  F12 y    m2 aG y  FPy 
 R
 12 y
R12 x 1
  12   G

 T  I   R F  R F
Px Py Py Px 


 Crank Slider
Free Body Diagrams:
 Crank Slider
• For Link 4:
F14 x  F43x  FPx  m4 aG4 x
F14 y  F43 y  FPy  0
F14 x   F14 y
• 8 equations, 8 unknowns
 In One Matrix Equation
• We have 8 equations and 8 unknowns
 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0  F12 x   m2 aG2 x 
 
 0
 1 0 1 0 0 0 0  F12 y   m2 aG2 y 
 R12 y R12 x  R32 y R32 x 0 0 0 1  F32 x   I G2 2 
    ma 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0  F32 y   3 G3 x 

 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0  F43x  m3aG3 y 
    
 0 0 R23 y  R23x  R43 y R43x 0 0  F43 y   I G3 3 
 0 0 0 0 1 0   0  F14 y  m4 aG4 x  FPx 
  
 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0  T12    FPy 
 Shaking Forces and Shaking Torque

• Shaking Force: sum of forces acting on

the ground frame
FS=F21+F41
• Shaking Torque (Ts): reaction torque felt by
the ground.
Ts=T21=-T12
T21
 vibrations
• Vibration : Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called
vibration or oscillation. The swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked
string are typical examples of vibration. The study of vibration deals with the study
of oscillatory motions of bodies and the forces associated with them
• Why we study vibrations
• Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and failure on the machines and
structures
• To reduce vibration through proper design of machines and their mountings
• To utilize profitably in several consumer and industrial applications (quartz
oscillator for computers)
• To improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting, forging & welding
processes
• To stimulate earthquakes for geological research and conduct studies in design of
nuclear reactors
• Causes of vibration
Vibration can be caused by one or more factors at any given time, the most
common being:
Imbalance - A "heavy spot" in a rotating component will cause vibration
when the unbalanced weight rotates around the machine's axis, creating a
centrifugal force.
Misalignment /shaft runout - Vibration can result when machine shafts
are out of line. Angular misalignment occurs when the axes of (for example) a motor
and pump are not parallel. When the axes are parallel but not exactly aligned, the
condition is known as parallel misalignment. Misalignment can be caused during
assembly or develop over time, due to thermal expansion, components shifting or
improper reassembly after maintenance. The resulting vibration can be radial or axial
(in line with the axis of the machine) or both.
Wear - As components such as ball or roller bearings, drive belts or gears become
worn, they might cause vibration. When a roller bearing race becomes pitted, for
instance, the bearing rollers will cause a vibration each time they travel over the
damaged area. A gear tooth that is heavily chipped or worn, or a drive belt that is
breaking down, can also produce vibration.
Looseness - Vibration that might otherwise go unnoticed can
become obvious and destructive if the component that is vibrating
has loose bearings or is loosely attached to its mounts. Such
looseness might or might not be caused by the underlying vibration.
Whatever its cause, looseness can allow any vibration present to
cause damage, such as further bearing wear, wear and fatigue in
equipment mounts and other components.
• Vibratory System consists of:
1) spring or elasticity( F=KX)
2) mass or inertia (F= M)
3) damper (F=C)
Involves transfer of potential energy to kinetic
energy and vice versa

• Classification of vibration
1.Free Vibration: A system is left to vibrate on its own after an initial disturbance and no
external force acts on the system. E.g. simple pendulum
2. Forced Vibration: A system that is subjected to a repeating external force. E.g. oscillation
arises from diesel engines
- Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the natural
frequencies of the system
• Classification of vibration
1. Undamped Vibration: When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance
during oscillations
2. Damped Vibration: When any energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance
during oscillations
Classification of vibration
1.Linear Vibration: When all basic components of a vibratory system, i.e. the spring, the mass
and the damper behave linearly
2.Nonlinear Vibration: If any of the components behave nonlinearly
n
• Classification of vibration

1. Deterministic Vibration: If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion)

acting on a vibratory system is known at any given time
2. Nondeterministic or random Vibration: When the value of the excitation at a given
time cannot be predicted
Vibration analysis procedures

Step 1: Mathematical Modeling

Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
 M + C +KX = 0
+ 2+ X = 0
Where is the natural frequency and is the damping ratio

Example: Modeling a forging hammer

• Equivalent Spring

series :keq =

parallel : keq = k1 + k2
. Equivalent damper
series :Ceq =

parallel : Ceq = C1 + C2
• Therefore,

• From the roots of a quadratic equation , Here the discriminant -1, determines
the nature of the roots
1) = 1: roots are equal & repeated called critically damped .
2) 1 , called overdamping - two distinct real roots.
3) ζ < 1, called underdamped motion - most common .
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