UNIT TWO

PEOPLES & CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA & HORN

Ethiopia & Horn region is referred as cradle of humankind and
where civilization, food producing, making tools & religious
practices started. It is also regions of diversity : diverse people,
cultures, languages , religion , customs and economies.
A. Biological Evolution
Evolution is a process & gradual change in species over time
which passed through genes.
Mammal primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, etc.). Others evolved into Hominidae (human
ancestors) through natural process after 170 million years.

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 2.1. Human Evolution
East African Rift Valley is regarded as a cradle of humanity.
Various archaeological evidences proof this argument. Examples
of fossils discovered in Ethiopia (name of the fossil, age, place &
age of discovery):-
i. Chororapithecus- 10 million., Anchar/West Hararghe, 2007.
ii. Ardipithicus ramidus- 4. 2 mill B.P., Aramis in Afar, 1994.
iii. Australopithecus afarensis, Selam- 3.3 million years B.P,
Dikika, Mille (Afar),2000.
iv. Australopithecus Afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh)- c. 3.18 mill
years B. P.), Hadar (Afar) in 1974 A. D. Lucy was bipedal.
v. Australopithecus garhi-2.5 million B.P., at Bouri, Middle
Awash B/N 1996 and 1999.
vi. Australopithecus anamensis :-discovered on Lake Turkana. 2
Genus Homo- (Homo Habilis , Erectus , Sapiens)
- Result of the development of human brain. Emerged 2-2.5
million years B.P. Fossils found in Ethiopia & Horn
include:-
i. Homo Habilis :- skillful use of hands & oldest.
- dated 1.9 ml years B. P. Found in Lower Omo.
ii. Homo erectus- walking upright, dated 1.6 million years
B. P. They invented fire & started burials.
Fossils discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso, Gardula &
Gadeb.
Originated in Africa; then spread out to the world.

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iii. Homo sapiens - knowledgeable human being
Archaic Homo Sapiens dated 400, 000 years B.P.).
Homo sapiens idaltu- 160, 000 years B.P
Homo Sapiens Sapiens- 100, 000 years B.P.
Major centers of human evolution in Ethiopia :- Lower Omo
and Middle Awash valleys.
B. Cultural Evolution
Technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
Ages:- Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
 Stone tools were first technologies developed.

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Stone tools grouped in to three:-
a. Mode I (Olduwan)-were crude and mono-facial.
 made and used by homo habilis.
 produced by the direct percussion. Dated 2.52 mill years
b. Mode II (Acheulean): were bifacial. Invented by homo erectus
• Dated back to 1.7.million years B.P.
• Produced by indirect percussion, hammering.
c. Mode III (Sangoon): flexible and finest tools.
 produced by homo sapiens.
Sangoon (named after Sango Bay in Uganda).
Stone Age divided into : Paleolithic, Mesolithic & Neolithic.
i. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)-3.4 million to 11, 000 B. P.
Humans developed language
 sheltered in cave
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used stone, bone, wood, furs, & skin materials to prepare
food & clothing.
Labor Division was begun. :- able-bodied males as hunters
of fauna ; children and females as gatherers of flora.
ii. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )-11, 000-10,000 B. P.
Transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic.
Oldest evidence of stone tool in world) was found at
Dikika
iii. Neolithic (New Stone Age) Neolithic Revolution.
 Humans Shifted from Hunting-Gathering to
domestication plants & animals.
Domestication of plants and animals was major feature.
Sedentary way of life & mobile settlement was ended
Agriculture was started. People invented tools.
6
Neolithic revolution in Ethiopia:-
• Many flora (plants) and fauna(animals) were
domesticated. The 1st domesticated plants;- in Ethiopia.
Example:- Teff, dagussa , nug , enset … etc
• Manifestations: Many material remains ;- polished axes,
ceramics , grinding stones, remains of animals(cattle &
camel)
Sites (places) of domestication of plants and animals in
Africa Horn include:- Emba-Fakeda in Tigray
Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea ; Gobedra near Aksum
- Lalibela Cave on Lake Tana ; Laga Oda near Charchar
- Lake Basaqa near Matahara

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 2.3 The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia & Horn is marked by ethnic & linguistic
diversity & unity. Languages of Ethiopia & Horn :-
Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan language super families.
Afro-Asiatic: divided into Cushitic, Semitic and Omotic
language families. Nilo-Saharan :-Chari-Nile & Koman
1.Cushitic :- North, Central, Eastern & Southern Cushitic.
i. Northen Cushitic: Beja(Ertrean)
ii. Central Cushitic:- Agaw(Qimant, Hamtang, Bilen …)
iii.Eastern:- the most diversified. Oromo,Sidama, Somali,
Kambata, Ale, Arbore, Bayiso , Burji , Darashe, Dasanache,
Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Saho
iv. Southern Cushitic:- Dhalo(Kenya) & Nbugua(Tanzania.
8
2. Semitic: is divided as North & south Semitic.
• North Semetic:- Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken at Eritrea-Sudanese
border); Tigre (Eritrean ; Tigrigna (highland Eritrea & Tigray).
South:- (Outer South Semitic & Transverse South Semitic.)
i. Transverse:- Amharic Argoba, Harari, Silti, Wolane & Zay
ii. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage & Mesmes (endangered).
• 3. Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer,
Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
• Why Language status & classification did not remain
static ? b/c affected by factors like population movements,
warfare, trade, religious & territorial expansion,
urbanization etc. Then have affected languages (some died
out or in danger of extinction, others thrived). 9
 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes
shaped Settlement pattern.
 Cushites- :- largest linguistic group in the region. They
spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
 Semites-settled in the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern part.
 Omotic Peoples- majority south western Ethiopia along
Omo River except Shinasha & Anfillo.
 Nilotes- mainly found along Ethio-Sudanese border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
• Domestication of plants & animals gave humanity
interdependent modes of life: agriculture and
pastoralism.
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• Other economic activities:- Fishing, handicraft, trade, etc.
• Highland area :- sedentary agriculture or mixed farming.
Practiced by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic people.
Eastern lowland:- mainly pastoralism
Western lowlands:- pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion
• Indigenous religious :- beliefs and practices, native to the
region & practiced since ancient times.
• A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is: belief in one
Supreme Being & special power to natural phenomena.
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1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo :
 based on existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
• Waqa's power is manifested by spirits called Ayyana.
• Major spirits based on Waqeffanna:-
• Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit) - Atete (fertility spirit)
• Balas (victory spirit)
• Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
Ekera: a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost
Irrecha :- thanks giving festival ,besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
Qallu & Qallitti (female):maintained link b/n Ayyana & believers.
Galma:- Qallu ritual house
Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) : make pilgrimage to get
consecration of senior qallu (Abba Muda). Abba Muda had
turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center and white
at bottom.
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2. Hadya: Supreme Being is known as Waa, whose eyes are
represented by elincho (sun) & agana (moon).
 Spirits :- Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard)
attracted prayers sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains.
 Itto and Albaja :- well-known spiritual leaders credited to
introduce Fandancho.
3. Kambata:
 Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God.
Magnancho :Religious officials
4. Gedeo:- Mageno(Supreme Being),
- Deraro:- thanks giving ceremony.
5. Konso religion worship Waqa/ Wakh
Waaq/Wakh13
6. Gojjam Agew
Diban:- Supreme Being / Sky God.
7. Gurage:- Waq/Goita (Supreme Being),
 Bozha (thunder deity) & Damwamwit (health goddess).
 Gurage & Yem had a common deity known as Abba at
Enar (Henar).
8. Yem :- Ha’o (Sky God).
So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties
9. Konta’s :- Docho (spirit-cult).
10. Wolayta :-
Tosa (Xoossaa)- God Tosa & Ayyana (spirit)
• Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
• Micho (goat spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit). 14
• Dufuwa (grave) was abode of Moytiliya (father’s spirit).
• Mita: Sacred place of annual worship of spirits
• sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta
(Dubusha) offered there.
• Chaganna (prohibited days to work). Beka:- chose and
kept dark brown heifer . (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday
fate.
• Sharechuwa :- Religious practitioners
• Becha or Kra Eza Keta (ritual house).
11. Keficho’s :-
Yero:- Supreme Being. Eqo :- the spirit.
Alamo/ eke-Ayano : A person who hosts.
Father of all spirits dochi sat at Adiyo.
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• Damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada &
wogidochi of Adio :- local spirits . Dugo clan led spiritual
services.
12. Boro-Shinasha
 Iqa: super natural power. Rituals performed through
slaughtering animals.
Gure Shuka :- public prayer rituals.
13. Nuer : Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
• Rain, lightning thunder, rainbow, sun, moon and other
entities are manifestations or signs of God.
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Indigenous religion elements:-
prescribe praying for the prevention of:
• drought, flooding, erosion,
• disease & starvation within community
• Rituals are led by recognized elders, their pray and
bless are trusted to reach God.
• Practices & beliefs of indigenous religion are fused
with Christianity & Islam.
• Syncretism:- mixing of religions

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 2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism in Ethiopia & Horn noticed in the 4 th c AD, when
Bete-Israel refused to be converted to Christianity.
• Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot that differs from Rabbinic
Judaism.
• Dan tribe migrated to Ethiopia at Exodus after death of
King Solomon .
• Menilek I, believed to be son of Solomon & Makeda,
Queen of Saba.
• 6th C, Jews led by Azonos & Phinhas, to Ethiopia.
• They intermarried with Agaws & known as Bete-Israel.
• They lived in northern & northwestern Ethiopia
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 2.4.3. Christianity
Before Christianity, northern part of Ethiopia were
Polytheists (worship many gods):-
• Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god),
• Arwe (serpent-python god),
• Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god)
Aedesius and Frementius :- Syrian brothers, converted
King Ezana (r. 320-360) into Christianity.
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
• Atnatewos of Alexandria (328-373) consecrated
Frementius as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC).
• Abune Baslios (1959): 1st Ethiopian Patriarch anointed.
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Nine Saints who came from Mediterranean world
spread Christianity to the interior.
Nine Saints translated the bible into Geez and founded
monasteries.
Expansion continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270).
It got fresh momentum during the Medieval Period
(1270-1527)
Churches and monasteries served as repositories of
manuscripts and precious objects of art.
Later, Jesuits (Society of Jesus or catholic missionaries)
tried to convert Monophysite(only one nature) EOC to
Dyophysite (2 nature- divine & human)Catholic. This
brought religious controversies in EOC.

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Both Catholic & Protestant missionaries preached
their respective treaties in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Protestants, were systematic in preaching their faith
in the region. Protestants adopted old names for
Supreme Being and used them as equivalent to God.
They established schools open to all children of
chiefs & farmers.
2.3.4. Islam
 Prophet Mohammed preached Islam in Mecca since
610 AD.
 Prophet faced opposition from Quraysh rulers.
 He sent some of his early followers to Aksum
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• Armah Ella Seham (Ahmed al-Nejash), gave the
refugees asylum from 615-628 A.D.
Islam spread to Horn of Africa by peaceful ways:-trade.
Muslims settled on the Red Sea coasts.
 Islam spread among communities of the interior, largely
through the agency of preachers and merchants.
 Dahlak route played a role in introduction of Islam into
the interior.
 Zeila port on coast of Gulf of Aden served as the most
important gateway.

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• Sheikh Hussein (Muslim saint) of Bale spread Islam
into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia
& Horn.
• Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the 8th c
AD. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava &
Merca.
• Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.
• Mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have
been depositories of cultures, traditions & literature of
local Muslims.

The end of Chapter 2 !

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 UNIT THREE
Politics, Economy & Society In Ethiopia &
Horn To End Of 13th C
3.1 Emergence of States
What is state? State:- autonomous political unit. State is the highest
political organization.
State have four key elements:- population, defined territory,
sovereignty & government.
 State was the outcome of sedentary agriculture & cultural process.
Factors for the emergence of state :-
- Agriculture, trade, Wars, Religion...
The beginning of agriculture & irrigation.
 Trade : facilitated the development of state
 Religion: played prominent role
• Ethiopia & Horn is one of regions in Africa where early
state formation took place.
3.2 Ancient States in Ethiopia & Horn
1. Punt (1st historically known state)
 the earliest state in Ethiopia and the Horn. Evidence on Punt comes
from Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. There was cultural &
commercial relation with Egypt.
 Pharaoh Sahure- sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and
electrum
Pharaoh Asosi- took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt
Queen Hatshepsut – sent ships under Nubian Captain Nehasi via
Wadi-Tumilat. She took incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling
woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and
leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes,
people etc.
Export items from Punt to Egypt
Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and
medicinal plants .
 - Import items from Egypt to Punt: axes, swords, knives,
clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads ,trinkets.
- Hatshepsut presented the ritual importance of Amun
(god) & Khebis of the Netjeru-- divine or ghosts land
Location of Punt: exact location of punt is not known/clear
but it is it probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to
Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Guardafui.
2. Da’amat
the south of Aksum. It dated to the 5th C BC.
Mukarib.- politico- religious title.
Almouqah -principal god -Astarr - Venus god,
Na’uran- light god, -Shamsi- sun god Sin - moon god
 3. Small Archaeological centers
(Yeha, Hawulti, Melazo, Addi-Seglwmwni, Kaskase, Coloe,
Methara)
1. Yeha: NE of Axum. The oldest center from others emerged in 1, 000
BC
Remains of walls , Eg. The Great Temple of Yeha
2. Hawulti Melazo: southeast of Aksum, stone tablets are
inscribed in rectangular temple
3. Addi-Seglemeni: southwest of Aksum.
4. other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten,
Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe,
Tekonda etc
 Aksumite State
 formed around 200-100 B.C.
Territory:- extended East: Red Sea coast Western:Nile
Valley
North- Eritrea and South: northern parts of Shewa.
1. According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea:
◦ Adulis was the major and oldest port of Aksum.
◦ It mentioned ports of Aden, Zayla , Berbera, and Indian Ocean
Benadir Coasts like Moqadishu, Brava & Merca.
Export Items:- ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and spices,
gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells ,
curiosity animals like apes.
◦ Zoscales - king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language,
Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.
◦ Aksum also had relations with Ceylon & Asia Minor).
2. Christian Topography
Written by Cosmas Indicopleustes
 Mentions long distance trade between Aksum & a distant region
called Sasu rich in cattle. Practice in silent trade.
Aksumite kings like Gadarat, Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba,
Ezana, Ousanas II had extensive contacts with the outside
world notably with South Arabia.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e.
Roman Empire, Persia, China & Aksum) at the time as
recorded by, Mani.
Aksum was sufficient sources of timber for ship building
technology.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum
beyond Himyar and Saba
 but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to
Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia until 570 A. D.
Gabra Masqal:- son & successor of Kaleb who built a
church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
Decline of Aksumite Empire
a. Internal factor:-
Environmental degradation
Plague infestation
Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the
Aksumite state.
 b. External factor
 Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702
Achievements of Axum
 Indigenous script and calendar
Art and architecture which greatly influenced the post Aksumite
periods. The Aksumite obelisks and other church buildings (such as
Debre Damo) are best examples.
Music (the hymns of St. Yared)
Urbanization
Administrative and governance system
 Agricultural system including irrigation etc.
 Zagwe Dynasty(1150-1270 A.D)
Founded as the Aksumite center shifted southwards to Kubar,
rural highland of the Agaw.
Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, daughter of the
last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos,
Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
Territory:- extended to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana
region and the northern part of Gojjam in the west.
Exported item included slaves, ivory and rare spices.
Imported items:- cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, drags
and newly minted coins.
 Zagwe period :- a golden age in Ethiopia's art, architecture,
paintings & translation works from Arabic into Ge'ez, well
developed as an extension of the Aksumite civilization
 The excavation of numbers of churches from bed rock is its
best achievement. The rock-hewn churches classified in to
three types:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: are with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside. They are not totally separated from the
surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to
the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete
Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete
Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and
exterior parts. They are completely separated (carved out)
from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis,
Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is
said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem to avoid
difficulties of Ethiopian Christians encountered in their
journey to the Holy Lands.
The Downfall of Zagwe Dynasty
a. Problems of royal succession
b. Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient
rulers of Aksum.
Based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba, Solomonic
rulers claimed the Zagwe rulers as “illegitimate”.
Yekuno-Amlak, decent from the last Dilna’od, defeated
the last king of Zagwe (Yetbarek) at a battle in Gaynt &
proclaimed the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
3. East, Central, Southern, and Western States.
A. Bizamo:- on southern bend of Abay River. Founded in
18th C & had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot: oldest state. Territories :- in to south of Abay
and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and
east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot 13th C
 C. Enarya: A kingdom in the Gibe region in SW Ethiopia.
Royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
King (Hinnare- Tato).
Mikretcho (council) Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson)
 Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in
Yadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat: Lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery.
• Populations: Semitic speaking population related to Harari
and the Gurage.
• Paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
• Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names. Rulers bearing the
title of Awalamo.
 4. Muslim Sultanates
A. Shewa: the oldest sultanate. Founded by Makhzumi
Khalid ibn al-Walid, in 896 A. D , Makhzumite dynasty
B. Fatagar(11th C) :- around Minjar, Shenkora & Ada’a.
C. Dawaro:- located between upper waters of Awash and
Wabi- Shebelle. Valuable information on Dawaro by an
Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. Dawaro had a
currency called hakuna
D. Bali: It separated from Dawaro by Wabi-Shebelle River
& extended southwards to Gannale Dirre River.
Trade was mainly barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth
It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
E. Ifat:- established by Umar Walasma, of Hashamite clan
• The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
• Inhabitants earned from wheat, sorghum, chat, millet and
teff, and animal husbandry.
Others: Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar,
Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya,
Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and
North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim
3.3 External Contacts
A. Egypt - introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a
new pattern of relation between the region
B. Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
C. South Arabian Kingdoms
The Legend of Prester John
 The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought
over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter
The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known
to Europe for over a century.
Rich & powerful Christian ruler in middle of the 12 th century
The Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land
of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea and
the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
 3.4. Economic Formations

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

The main base of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough
agriculture.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
Communal right to land is a group right.
Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families
and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long
periods.
• It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
The tribute collected by bale-gults,
Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult
B. Handicrafts :
- Metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving,
jewelry, basketry. The artisans were mostly marginalized.
C. Trade: Internal and international trade.
Generally, the above discussed states have numerous socio-
cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
 Monuments and buildings of religious and secular spaces
 There were 58 steales in & around Aksum .The longest
measures 33m (the first in the world) & represents 14 storied
building. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, disc and a
crescent (half moon) at the top.
 2nd second longest obelisk measures 24 m height that was
successfully erected represents 9 -storied building
 3rd longest stele measures 21 meters & represents a nine-storied
building
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian
world
B. Writing System
 Sabean language had an alphabet with paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively.
 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia
date to the ninth century BC.
 By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an
abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right
with letters identical to the first-order forms of modern
vocalized alphabet.
Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has
immense contribution to the development of literature,
art and the writing of history.
 C. Calendar

1. Oromo calendar:- Based on astronomical observations of moon

in conjunction with 7 or 8 particular stars or group of stars called
Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) & Bakkalcha (morning star).
 There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months.
 Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have to develop Oromo
calendar
2. The Sidama calendar:- Rotates following movements of stars
with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28
days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and
Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks. Fiche
Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
3. Ethiopic solar calendar :- Has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6
(is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, comprise a 13th month.
4. The Muslim (Islamic) calendar
 A lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354
or 355 days.
It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed
and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
5. Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,
Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
D. Numerals
Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the
beginning of fourth century AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew,
Arabic and Greek numerals
The End of the Unit 3