Telecommunication System

ICT-4103

By-
Dr. Jesmin Akhter
Professor
Institute of Information Technology
Jahangirnagar University
 THE USE OF TANDEM SWITCHES IN A
LOCAL AREA CONNECTIVITY
• A tandem, telephone switch is a central office telephone exchange used
to interconnect local exchange carrier offices for long
distance communications in the public switched telephone network.
• Also called a "Class 4 switch" or "TDM switch," a tandem switch is a
computer that is specialized for TDM-based, circuit-switched telephone
calls.
• In the past, most of the call recording and billing was handled by tandem
switches, also called "toll/
tandem switches." Subsequently, such services were taken over by end of
fice switches.
• Tandem switch does not connect directly to telephones; instead, it
connects to other class-4 switches and to class-5 telephone switches. The
telephones of service subscribers are wired to class-5 switches. When a
call is placed to a telephone that is not on the same class-5 switch as the
originating subscriber, the call may be routed through one or more class-
4 switches to reach its destination.
 THE USE OF TANDEM SWITCHES IN A
LOCAL AREA CONNECTIVITY
• Tandem is also known as a backbone switch and a core switch, a
tandem switch is a high-capacity switch positioned in the
physical core, or backbone, of a Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN), where it serves to interconnect edge switches,
or Central Office (CO) switches.
• Direct route and tandem connectivities are illustrated in Figure
1.6
THE USE OF TANDEM SWITCHES IN A
LOCAL AREA CONNECTIVITY
• A tandem switch can act as a traffic concentrator.
• To employ a direct trunk circuit, there must be sufficient traffic to justify such a circuit. One reference
suggests a break point of 20 erlangs.
• For a connectivity with traffic intensity under 20 erlangs for the busy hour (BH), the traffic should be
routed through a tandem (exchange). For traffic intensities over that value, establish a direct route.
 BUSY HOUR
• The PSTN would approach 100% efficiency if all the circuits were used all the time. The facts are that the
PSTN approaches total capacity utilization for only several hours during the working day. After 10 P.M.
and before 7 A.M., capacity utilization may be 2% or 3%.
• The busy hour can be defined as a period of sixty consecutive minutes during which the telephone traffic
is the highest. “That uninterrupted period of 60 minutes during the day when the traffic offered is
maximum, where, telephone traffic means number of subscribers trying to contact other subscribers.”
 BUSY HOUR
• The busy hour varies from exchange to exchange depending on it’s location, and community interest of its
subscribers.
• There are two periods where traffic demand on the PSTN is maximum: one in the morning and one in the
afternoon. Two traffic peaks in Figure 1.7 are caused by business subscribers.
• If the residential and business curves were combined, the peaks would be much sharper. The morning
peak is somewhat more intense than the afternoon busy hour. In North America the busy hour (BH) is
between 9:30 A.M. and 10:30 A.M.
GRADE OF SERVICE
• The IEEE defines grade of service as “the proportion of total calls, usually during the
busy hour, that cannot be completed immediately or served within a prescribed time.”
• Networks are sized/dimensioned for a traffic load expected during the busy hour.
• The sizing is based on probability, usually expressed as a decimal or percentage.
• That probability percentage or decimal is called the grade of service.
• Grade of service and blocking probability are synonymous.
• Blocking probability are usually stated as B = 0.01 or 1%. This means that during the
busy hour, 1 in 100 calls can be expected to meet blockage
SIMPLEX, HALF-DUPLEX, AND FULL
DUPLEX
• These are operational terms,
• Simplex is one way operation; there is no reply channel provided. Radio and television broadcasting are simplex.
Garage door openers, Keyboard and monitor, wireless microphones, and surveillance cameras are also the
communication is only in one direction.
• Half-duplex is a two-way service. It is defined as transmission over a circuit capable of transmitting in either direction,
but only in one direction at a time. An example of a half-duplex device is a walkie-talkie, a two-way radio that has
a push-to-talk button. When the local user wants to speak to the remote person, they push this button, which turns on
the transmitter and turns off the receiver, preventing them from hearing the remote person while talking. To listen to
the remote person, they release the button, which turns on the receiver and turns off the transmitter.
• Full duplex or just duplex defines simultaneous two-way independent transmission on a circuit in both directions. All
PSTN-type circuits are full-duplex operation. The parties at both ends of a call can speak and be heard by the other
party simultaneously
TWO-WIRE AND FOUR-WIRE
CIRCUITS
• Trunks can be configured for either one-way or two-way operation where one way
operation can be achieved using Two-wire circuit and two-way operation can be
done by Four-wire circuit .
• A third option is a hybrid where Two-wire circuits predominate and a number of
Four-wire circuits are provided for overflow situations.
TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT/ONE WAY
CIRCUIT
• Two-wire circuit has two insulated electrical conductors: One wire is used for
transmission of the information, and the other wire acts as the return path to
complete the electrical circuit. That is it has only one way transmission path.
• Two-wire circuits are generally deployed in the analog local loop. The
telephones in our homes and offices are connected to a local switching center
(exchange) by means of two-wire circuits.
• Figure 1.1 shows an example of a two-wire circuit.
TWO-WIRE CIRCUIT/ONE WAY
CIRCUIT
• Figure b shows one-way trunk operation. The upper trunk group is assigned for
the direction from A to B; the lower trunk group is assigned for the opposite
direction, from exchange B to exchange A. Here there is no possibility of double
seizure.
FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT/TWO-WAY
CIRCUIT
• A four-wire circuit has two pairs of conductors. That is, it has two sets of one-way
transmission paths: one path for each direction and a complementary path to
complete the electrical circuit (Figure 1.2).
• Four-wire circuits are used where the distance between the termination points
requires that the signal be amplified periodically.
• Four-wire circuits are also used with leased lines, where a customer may be
connecting locations of its own that are separated by distance. Also, all digital circuits
are provisioned on a four-wire basis.

A B
FOUR-WIRE CIRCUIT
• Figure a shows two-way trunk operation(Four wire circuit). In this case, any
trunk can be selected for operation in either direction.
• There is some fair probability that the same trunk can be selected from either
side of the circuit. This is called double seizure. It is highly undesirable.
• One way to reduce this probability is to use normal trunk numbering (from top
down) on one side of the circuit (at exchange A in the figure) and to reverse
trunk numbering, from the bottom up at the opposite side of the circuit
(exchange B)
 Hybrid arrangement.
• Figure c illustrates a typical hybrid arrangement. The upper trunk group
carries traffic from exchange A to exchange B exclusively. The lowest trunk
group carries traffic in the opposite direction. The small, middle trunk group
contains two-way trunk operations(Four wire circuit). Switches are
programmed to select from the two-wire circuits first, until all these circuits
become busy; then they may assign from the four-wire circuit pool.
Using Two-Wire and Four-Wire Circuits
• When you release energy into space, it loses power as it travels. Because networks were
designed to carry communications over a distance, they need tools to regenerate attenuated
signals, that is, signals that lose power as they travel across the network. These tools are called
amplifiers and repeaters. An amplifier boosts an attenuated signal back up to its original power
level so it can continue to make its way across the network.
• The PSTN traditionally used copper wires. Based on how quickly the signals attenuate over the
copper wires, there's a certain distance limitation between amplifiers. The distance limitation
between amplifiers is relatively short on copper wires. Generally about 6,000 feet (1,800 m).
 Using Two-Wire and Four-Wire Circuits
• When crossing a particular distance, it was necessary to literally provision two way circuit, one to
amplify the information in the transmit direction and a second to amplify the information in the receive
direction.
• Therefore, whenever a network was crossing a distance, it needed to use a two way circuit /four-wire
circuit. But in building the millions of local loops for subscribers, it was seen as being cost-effective to
pull only two wires into every home rather than four. Therefore, the local loops were intentionally
engineered to be very short;
• Some 70% to 80% of the local loops worldwide are less than 2 miles (3.2 km) long. Because the local
loops are short, they don't need amplifiers, and therefore the subscriber access service can be
provisioned over a two-wire circuit. However, the local loop is increasingly being digitalized, so as we
migrate to an end-to-end digital environment, everything becomes four-wire. Figure 1.3 shows an
example of a segment of a network in which two- and four-wire circuits are traditionally used.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• The arrangement of links and nodes is called the topology of the network.
• Topology is “the interconnection pattern of nodes on a network.”
• Telecommunications network consists of a group of interconnected nodes or
switching centers.
• If every switch in a network is connected to all other switches (or nodes) in the
network, we call this “pattern” a full-mesh network.
• The figure has eight nodes.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• Figure 1.9b shows a star network. It is probably the least survivable. However, it is one of
the most economic nodal patterns both to install and to administer.
• Figure 1.9c shows a multiple star network. Of course we are free to modify such networks
by adding direct routes.
• Figure 1.9d shows a hierarchical network. It is a natural outgrowth of the multiple star
network shown in Figure 1.9c.
• In Figure 1.9d there are five levels.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• The highest rank or order in the hierarchy
is the class 1 Regional and the lowest rank
is the class 5 office. The class 5 office
(switch), often called an end office, is the
local serving switch,
• We tend to use direct route for the local
area, and we use high-usage routes for a
long-distance or toll network.
Thank You