REACTIVITY 1.
WHAT DRIVES CHEMICAL
REACTIONS?
Reactivity 1.2—Energy cycles in reactions
Guiding question: How does application of the law of
conservation of energy help us to predict energy changes during
reactions?
Syed Arshad Mushtaq
Bond Enthalpy
Learning Objective (Reactivity 1.1.1)
Understand:
• Bond-breaking absorbs and bond-forming releases energy.
Apply your knowledge to:
• Calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction from given average bond enthalpy
data.
BOND ENTHALPY
• The bond enthalpy (BE) is defined as the energy required to break one mole of
bonds by homolytic fission in one mole of gaseous covalent molecules under
standard conditions
• The process of homolytic fission distributes the electrons from the bond equally
between the two new species. This results in the formation of radicals, indicated by
the • symbol.
• Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic): ∆H positive.
• Bond making releases energy (exothermic): ∆H negative
SAMPLE PROBLEM
• Which of the following processes are endothermic?
1. 2Cl Cl2
2. Na Na+ + e-
3. Na+ + Cl- NaCl
4. Na(g) Na(s)
• The answer is the 2nd equation which is the only one
separating into particles.
AVERAGE BOND ENTHALPIES
• Bond enthalpies are calculated by separating the atoms.
• Cl2(g) 2Cl(g) ∆H⁰ = +242 kJ/mol
• It is more complicated in molecules that contain more than 2 atoms.
• H2O(g) H(g) + OH(g) ∆H⁰ = +502 kJ/mol
• OH(g) H(g) + O(g) ∆H⁰ = +427 kJ/mol
• In order to compare bond enthalpies, average bond enthalpies are tabulated.
• All tabulated bond enthalpies refer to reactions in their gaseous state so
that the enthalpy changes caused by the formation and breaking of
intermolecular forces can be ignored.
• Multiple bonds have higher bond enthalpies and are shorter than single
bonds.
• Very important:
When using bond enthalpies, you use reactants minus products, not products
minus reactants as in the standard heat of formation formula.
• ∆H = ∑(bonds broken) – ∑(bonds formed)
reactants products
Using bond enthalpies to calculate enthalpy
change of a reaction
• Enthalpy Change for a reaction
Enthalpy Change Bond Broken Enthalpy Change Bond formed
Σ(BE of bonds broken) Σ(BE of bonds formed)
ΔH = Σ(BE of bonds broken) − Σ(BE of bonds formed)
Very important:
When using bond enthalpies, you use reactants minus products, not
products minus reactants as in the standard heat of formation formula
Using bond enthalpy data, determine the enthalpy change of reaction for
the following process:
• Solution
• ΔH = Σ(BE of bonds broken) − Σ(BE of bonds formed)
Enthalpy Change Bond Broken Enthalpy Change Bond formed
4H-H = 4 × 414= 1,656 kj/mol 5C-H = 5x 414 = 2070 kj/mol
1C=C = 1x614 = 614 kj/mol 1C-C = 1x 346 = 346 kj/mol
1 H-Br = 1x 366 = 366 kj/mol 1 C-Br = 1x 285 = 285 kj/mol
Σ(BE of bonds broken) = 2636 Σ(BE of bonds formed) = 2701
ΔH = Σ(BE of bonds broken) − Σ(BE of bonds formed) = - 65 kj/mol
Practice: Using section 12 of the data booklet Solve
1. Calculate ∆Hreaction for the following reaction:
a) CH4 (g) + 2 Cl2 (g) CH2Cl2 (g) + 2 HCl (g)
b) 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2O (g)
c) CH4 (g) + 2 Cl2 (g) CH2Cl2 (g) + 2 HCl (g)
2. The enthalpy change for the reaction:
ClF3 (g) Cl (g) + 3 F (g) is 514 kJ.
Using this information and the bond enthalpies, calculate the average Cl-F bond energy in
ClF3.
3. Hydrazine, N2H4 and its derivatives are used as rocket fuels. Use bond enthalpies on the
values to calculate the molar enthalpy of formation of N 2H4 (g).
Limitations of using average bond enthalpies
• Everything must be in the gaseous state.
• If water were a liquid as a product, then more heat would be evolved
because it would also have to include the heat of vaporization of
water.
• Average bond enthalpies are used which are obtained considering a
number of similar compounds.
• In reality, the energy of a particular bond varies slightly in different compounds and
it is affected by neighboring atoms.
• So ∆H values obtained from using average bond enthalpies will not necessarily be
very accurate.
HESS’S LAW
Learning Objective (Reactivity 1.1.2)
Understand:
• Hess's law states that the enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the
pathway between the initial and final states.
Apply your knowledge to:
• Apply Hess's law to calculate enthalpy changes in multi-step reactions.
HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION
• Hess’s law states that the enthalpy change for any chemical reaction is
independent of the route, provided the starting conditions and final
conditions, and reactants and products, are the same.
• Consider a reaction A B, which can either go directly or via
intermediate C.
• Hess’s Law is designed so that you will manipulate a series of reactions
(called step equations) to reach the required reaction which is most always
given.
1. If you reverse a reaction, reverse the sign of ΔH.
2. If you multiply or divide a step equation by an integer, you must also
multiply or divide your ΔH by the same factor.
• Hess’s law is a statement of the Law of Conservation of Energy.
• It is used to measure enthalpy changes which cannot be measured directly in
the laboratory.
• Hess’s law is a statement of the Law of Conservation of Energy.
• It is used to measure enthalpy changes which cannot be measured directly in the laboratory.
• The standard enthalpy of formation
(ΔHfº ) is defined as the change in enthalpy that
accompanies the formation of one mole of a
compound from its elements with all substances in
their standard states.
• The degree symbol means that the process was
carried out under standard conditions.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
• Consider the standard enthalpy of formation of
methane.
C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
• Notice that one mole of methane was formed from its
elements in their standard states.
• This looks like a simple enough equation where we
could react carbon with hydrogen to form methane and
determine the heat change.
• However, it is difficult to react carbon with
hydrogen and practically impossible to do so
experimentally.
• We can easily burn carbon, hydrogen and methane
to determine the standard enthalpy of combustion
ΔHcº directly for each of the three substances.
• This would give us our step equations with
enthalpy values that we could manipulate to
determine the ΔH for the ΔHfº for methane.
• C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ΔHcº = -393 kJ mol-1
• H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) H2O(l) ΔHcº = -286 kJ mol-1
• CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔHcº = -890 kJ mol-1
• The main equation again is C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
• I need CH4 on the right and 2 – H2’s on the left.
• I will have to reverse the 3rd equation so I change the sign of ΔH.
• I will have to double the 2nd equation because I need 2H2’s in the
final equation so I will multiply the ΔH by 2.
• C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ΔHcº = -393 kJ mol-1
• 2H2(g) + 2/2 O2(g) 2H2O(l) ΔHcº = 2(-286) kJ mol-1
• CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ΔHcº = +890 kJ mol-1
• Now cross out anything that is the same on both sides.
• C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ΔHcº = -393 kJ mol-1
• 2H2(g) + 2/2 O2(g) 2H2O(l) ΔHcº = 2(-286) kJ mol-1
• CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ΔHcº = +890 kJ mol-1
• Adding the equations will now give us the main equation.
• C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
• ΔHfº = +890 kJ mol-1 + 2(-286) kJ mol-1 + -393 kJ mol-1
= -75 kJ mol-1
PRACTICE
CHALLENGE
CITATIONS
• Oxford Resources for IB Chemistry – Course Companion 2023 ed
• Think IB Chemistry
• International Baccalaureate Organization. Chemistry Guide, First
assessment 2025.
• Brown, Catrin, and Mike Ford. Higher Level Chemistry. 2nd ed. N.p.:
Pearson Baccalaureate, 2014. Print.
Most of the information found in this power point comes directly from this
textbook. The power point has been made to directly complement the
textbooks and is used for direct instructional purposes only.
