Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Application Layer

Unit: 5

Computer Networks
Manisha
ACSE0602
Assistant Professor
B Tech 5th Sem CS Department

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 Contents
•Evaluation Scheme
•Syllabus
•Branch wise syllabus
•Course Objective
•Course Outcome
•Program Outcome
•CO-PO Mapping
•PSO
•CO- PSO Mapping
•PEO
•Result analysis
•Paper template
•Prerequisites
•Introduction to subject
•Unit objective

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 CONTENTS
•APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL
• Topic Objective
• Functions of Application Layer
• Design Issues with Application Layer
• Network Application Architecture
• Client And Server Model
• Virtual Terminal
• NETWORK VIRTUAL TERMINAL (NVT)
• MAIL SERVICES
• ADDRESSING
• DIRECTORY SERVICES
• FTAM (File Transfer Access and Management)
• APPLICATION PROTOCOLS
• Topic Objective & Recap of previous topic
• DNS
• FTP
• TELNET
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
• HTTP
• SMTP
• SNMP
• Other Application Layer Protocols
• Cryptography – basic concepts
• Firewalls.
• Appendix
• Video Links
• Quiz
• Weekly assignment
• MCQ
• Glossary Questions
• Old Question papers
• Expected Questions in University exams
• Summary
• Text book
• Reference
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 Evaluation Scheme

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 Syllabus
Unit Topic
I Goals and applications of networks, Categories of networks, Organization of the Internet, ISP,
The OSI referencemodel, TCP/IP protocol suite, Network devices and components, Mode of
communicationsPhysical Layer: Network topology design, Types of connections, LAN, MAN and
MAN Transmission media, Signaltransmission and encoding, Network performance and
transmission impairments, Switching techniques and multiplexing, IEEE standards

II Framing, Error Detection and Correction, Flow control (Elementary Data Link Protocols, Sliding
Window protocols).Medium Access Control and Local Area Networks: Channel allocation,
Multiple access protocols, LAN standards,Link layer switches & bridges.
III Point-to-point networks, Logical addressing, Basic internetworking (IP, CIDR, ARP, RARP, DHCP,
ICMP), IPv4,Routing, forwarding and delivery, Static and dynamic routing, Routing algorithms
and protocols, Congestion controlalgorithms, IPv6.
IV Process-to-process delivery, Transport layer protocols (UDP and TCP), Connection management,
Flow control and retransmission, Window management, TCP Congestion control, Quality of
service.
V Domain Name System, World Wide Web and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, Electronic mail, File
Transfer Protocol,Remote login, Network management, Data compression, VPN, Cryptography –
basic concepts, Firewalls.

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 Branch wise Applications

• Resource Sharing
• Server-Client model:
• Communication Medium:
• Access to remote information
• Person-to-person communication
• Electronic commerce
• Cloud-based Applications
• AI and Expert System
• Neural Networks and parallel programming
• Decision support and office automation systems etc.

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 Course Objective

To develop an understanding of
• To understand computer networking basics.
• To understand different components of computer networks.
• To study and understand various protocols.
• The standard models for the layered approach to communication
between autonomous machines in a network.
• To study and understand the main characteristics of data
transmission across various physical link types.

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 Course Outcome
At the end of the course, the student will be able
Course Outcomes (CO) Bloom’s
Knowledge Level
(KL)
Build an understanding of the fundamental concepts and K2, K6
C602.1 Layered Architecture of computer networking.

Understand the basic concepts of link layer properties to K2, k6

detect error and develop the solution for error control and
C602.2
flow control.

Design, calculate, and apply subnet masks and addresses to K3, K4, K6
fulfil networking requirements and calculate distance among
C602.3
routers in subnet.

Understand the duties of transport layer, Session layer with K2, K4

C602.4 connection management of TCP protocol.
C602.5 Discuss the different protocols used at application layer. K2

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 Program Outcome
1. Engineering knowledge
2. Problem analysis
3. Design/development of solutions
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems
5. Modern tool usage
6. The engineer and society
7. Environment and sustainability
8. Ethics
9. Individual and team work
10. Communication
11. Project management and finance
12. Life-long learning
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 CO-PO Mapping
The highlighted text shows the mapping of course outcome with PO
mapping of this unit

Computer Networks (KCS-603) Year of Study: 2021-22

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
C602.1 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 3
C602.2 3 3 2 2 3 2 1 1 3
C602.3 3 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 3
C602.4 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3
C602.5 2 2 2 1 1 3

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 Program Specific Outcomes

 PSO1: The ability to identify, analyze real world problems and design their
ethical solutions using artificial intelligence, robotics, virtual/augmented
reality, data analytics, block chain technology, and cloud computing.
 PSO2:The ability to design and develop the hardware sensor devices and
related interfacing software systems for solving complex engineering
problems.
 PSO3: The ability to understand inter-disciplinary computing techniques and
to apply them in the design of advanced computing.
 PSO4: The ability to conduct investigation of complex problems with the help
of technical, managerial, leadership qualities, and modern engineering tools
provided by industry-sponsored laboratories.
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 CO-PSO Mapping

The highlighted text shows the mapping of course outcome

with PSO mapping of this unit

CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3 PSO4

C602.1 3 3 2 1
C602.2 3 3 2 1
C602.3 3 3 2 1
C602.4 3 3 1 1
C602.5 3 3 1 1

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 Program Educational Objectives

• PEO1: To have an excellent scientific and engineering breadth so as to

comprehend, analyze, design and provide sustainable solutions for real-life
problems using state-of-the-art technologies.

• PEO2: To have a successful career in industries, to pursue higher studies or

to support entrepreneurial endeavors and to face the global challenges.

• PEO3: To have an effective communication skills, professional attitude,

ethical values and a desire to learn specific knowledge in emerging trends,
technologies for research, innovation and product development and
contribution to society.

• PEO4: To have life-long learning for up-skilling and re-skilling for a successful
professional career as an engineer, scientist, entrepreneur or bureaucrat for
the betterment of the society.

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 Result Analysis

• Computer Networks Result of 2020-21: 96.97%

• Average Marks: 54.33

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 End Semester Question Paper Templates

SECTION B
2. Attempt any three of the following: 3 x 10 = 30
Q.No. Question Mark CO
s
1 10
2 10
. .
5 SECTION C 10
3. Attempt any one part of the following: 1 x 10 = 10
Q.No. Question Marks CO

1 10
2 10
16
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CN Unit Number: 5
 End Semester Question Paper Templates
4. Attempt any one part of the following: 1 x 10 = 10
Q.No. Question Marks CO

1 10
2 10
5. Attempt any one part of the following: 1 x 10 = 10
Q.No. Question Marks CO
1 10
2 10

6. Attempt any one part of the following: 1 x 10 = 10

Q.No. Question Marks CO

1 10
2 10

17
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 End Semester Question Paper Templates

7. Attempt any one part of the following: 1 x 10 = 10

Q.No. Question Marks CO

1 10
2 10

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 Prerequisite

• The student should have knowledge of

• Networking
• Layout of computer
• Hardware
• The basic knowledge of C

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 Brief Introduction to Subject
• Computer network is a group of devices connected with each
other through a transmission medium such as wires, cables
etc.

• These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax

machines etc.

• The purpose of having computer network is to send and

receive data stored in other devices over the network.

20
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 Course Objective / Unit Objective
• To develop an understanding of
• Computer networking basics,
• To understand different components of computer networks,
• Various protocols,
• The standard models for the layered approach to communication
between autonomous machines in a network,
• And the main characteristics of data transmission across various
physical link types.

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 Topic Objective - Application Layer
• To understand the Application layer
• Services provided by the layer
• Protocols supported

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

It is the top most layer of OSI Model. Manipulation of data (information) in

various ways is done in this layer which enables user or software to get access to
the network. Some services provided by this layer includes: E-Mail, transferring
files, distributing the results to user, directory services, network resources, etc.
The Application Layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly
needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser
wants a web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using HTTP.
The server then sends the page back.
Other Application protocols that are used are: File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Trivial
File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), TELNET,
Domain Name System (DNS) etc.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

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Functions of Application Layer

1. Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host. The

application creates software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. User's
computer talks to the software terminal which in turn talks to the host and vice
versa. Then the remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows user to log on.
2. Mail Services: This layer provides the basis for E-mail forwarding and storage.
3. Addressing: To obtain communication between client and server, there is a
need for addressing. When a client made a request to the server, the request
contains the server address and its own address. The server response to the
client request, the request contains the destination address, i.e., client address.
To achieve this kind of addressing, DNS is used.
4. Directory Services: This layer provides access for global information about
various services.

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5.File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): It is a standard mechanism to

access files and manages it. Users can access files in a remote computer and
manage it. They can also retrieve files from a remote computer.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Network Application Architecture

Application architecture is different from the network architecture. The network
architecture is fixed and provides a set of services to applications. The application
architecture, on the other hand, is designed by the application developer and
defines how the application should be structured over the various end systems.
Application architecture is of two types:
1. Client-server architecture: An application program running on the local
machine sends a request to another application program is known as a client,
and a program that serves a request is known as a server. For example, when a
web server receives a request from the client host, it responds to the request
to the client host.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Characteristics of Client-server architecture:

. In Client-server architecture, clients do not directly communicate with each
other. For example, in a web application, two browsers do not directly
communicate with each other.
. A server is fixed, well-known address known as IP address because the server is
always on while the client can always contact the server by sending a packet
to the sender's IP address.
Disadvantage of Client-server architecture:
It is a single-server based architecture which is incapable of holding all the
requests from the clients. For example, a social networking site can become
overwhelmed when there is only one server exists.

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2. P2P (peer-to-peer) architecture: It has no dedicated server in a data center.

The peers are the computers which are not owned by the service provider.
Most of the peers reside in the homes, offices, schools, and universities. The
peers communicate with each other without passing the information through
a dedicated server, this architecture is known as peer-to-peer architecture.
The applications based on P2P architecture includes file sharing and internet
telephony.
Features of P2P architecture
. Self scalability: In a file sharing system, although each peer generates a
workload by requesting the files, each peer also adds a service capacity by
distributing the files to the peer.
. Cost-effective: It is cost-effective as it does not require significant server
infrastructure and server bandwidth.
Client and Server processes
. A network application consists of a pair of processes that send the messages to
each other over a network.
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. In P2P file-sharing system, a file is transferred from a process in one peer to a

process in another peer. We label one of the two processes as the client and
another process as the server.
. With P2P file sharing, the peer which is downloading the file is known as a
client, and the peer which is uploading the file is known as a server. However,
we have observed in some applications such as P2P file sharing; a process can
be both as a client and server. Therefore, we can say that a process can both
download and upload the files.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Client And Server Model

. A client and server networking model is a model in which computers such as

servers provide the network services to the other computers such as clients to
perform a user based tasks. This model is known as client-server networking
model.
. The application programs using the client-server model should follow the given
below strategies:
Client Server

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

. An application program is known as a client program, running on the local

machine that requests for a service from an application program known as a
server program, running on the remote machine.
. A client program runs only when it requests for a service from the server while
the server program runs all time as it does not know when its service is
required.
. A server provides a service for many clients not just for a single client.
Therefore, we can say that client-server follows the many-to-one relationship.
Many clients can use the service of one server.
. Services are required frequently, and many users have a specific client-server
application program. For example, the client-server application program
allows the user to access the files, send e-mail, and so on. If the services are
more customized, then we should have one generic application program that
allows the user to access the services available on the remote computer.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Client
A client is a program that runs on the local machine requesting service from the
server. A client program is a finite program means that the service started by the
user and terminates when the service is completed.
Server

A server is a program that runs on the remote machine providing services to the
clients. When the client requests for a service, then the server opens the door for
the incoming requests, but it never initiates the service.
A server program is an infinite program means that when it starts, it runs infinitely
unless the problem arises. The server waits for the incoming requests from the
clients. When the request arrives at the server, then it responds to the request.

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Advantages of Client-server networks:

. Centralized: Centralized back-up is possible in client-server networks, i.e., all
the data is stored in a server.
. Security: These networks are more secure as all the shared resources are
centrally administered.
. Performance: The use of the dedicated server increases the speed of sharing
resources. This increases the performance of the overall system.
. Scalability: We can increase the number of clients and servers separately,
i.e., the new element can be added, or we can add a new node in a network at
any time.

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Disadvantages of Client-Server network:

. Traffic Congestion is a big problem in Client/Server networks. When a large
number of clients send requests to the same server may cause the problem of
Traffic congestion.
. It does not have a robustness of a network, i.e., when the server is down, then
the client requests cannot be met.
. A client/server network is very decisive. Sometimes, regular computer
hardware does not serve a certain number of clients. In such situations,
specific hardware is required at the server side to complete the work.
. Sometimes the resources exist in the server but may not exist in the client. For
example, If the application is web, then we cannot take the print out directly
on printers without taking out the print view window on the web.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Virtual Terminal

In open systems, a virtual terminal (VT) is an application service that:

1. Allows host terminals on a multi-user network to interact with other hosts

regardless of terminal type and characteristics,
2. Allows remote log-on by local area network managers for the purpose of
management,
3. Allows users to access information from another host processor for
transaction processing,
4.Serves as a backup facility.

They are also called Virtual Console, are emulated text terminals, using the
keyboard and monitor of a personal computer or workstation. The word "text" is
key since virtual consoles are not GUI terminals and they do not run inside a
graphical interface. Virtual consoles are found on all GNU/Linux systems, even
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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

on systems which don't have a desktop environment or graphical system installed.

They are primarily used to access and interact with servers.
PuTTY is an example of a virtual terminal.

ITU-T defines a virtual terminal protocol based on the OSI application layer
protocols. However, the virtual terminal protocol is not widely used on the
Internet.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

NETWORK VIRTUAL TERMINAL (NVT)

• The network virtual terminal is an interface that defines how data and
commands are sent across the network.
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• In today's world, systems are heterogeneous. For example, the

operating system accepts a special combination of characters such as
end-of-file token running a DOS operating system ctrl+z while the token
running a UNIX operating system is ctrl+d.
• TELNET solves this issue by defining a universal interface known as
network virtual interface.
• The TELNET client translates the characters that come from the local
terminal into NVT form and then delivers them to the network. The
Telnet server then translates the data from NVT form into a form which
can be understandable by a remote computer.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

MAIL SERVICES

Email is a store-and-forward method of sending, storing, and retrieving

electronic messages across a network. Email messages are stored in databases
on mail servers. ISPs often maintain mail servers that support many different
customer accounts.
Email clients communicate with mail servers to send and receive email. Mail
servers communicate with other mail servers to transport messages from one
domain to another. An email client does not communicate directly with another
email client when sending email. Instead, both clients rely on the mail server to
transport messages. This is true even when both users are in the same domain.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Email clients send messages to the email server configured in the application
settings. When the server receives the message, it checks to see if the recipient
domain is located on its local database. If it is not, it sends a DNS request to
determine the IP address of the mail server for the destination domain. The
email is then forwarded to the appropriate server.
Email supports three separate protocols for operation: Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), and Internet Message Access
Protocol (IMAP). The application layer process that sends mail, uses SMTP.
This is the case if sending from a client to a server, as well as when sending from
one server to another.

A client retrieves email, however, using one of two application layer protocols:
POP or IMAP.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

ISP A ISP B
Mail Server Mail Server

SMTP IMAP or POP3

internet

Send to [email protected]
—--

Sender Recipient

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) transfers mail reliably and efficiently. For
SMTP applications to work properly, the mail message must be formatted
properly and SMTP processes must be running on both the client and server.
SMTP message formats require a message header and a message body. While
the message body can contain any amount of text, the message header must
have a properly formatted recipient email address and a sender address. Any
other header information is optional.
When a client sends email, the client SMTP process connects with a server
SMTP process on well-known port 25. After the connection is made, the client
attempts to send the email to the server across the connection. When the server
receives the message, it either places the message in a local account, if the
recipient is local, or forwards the message using the same SMTP connection
process to another mail server for delivery.

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The destination email server may not be online or may be busy when email
messages are sent. Therefore, SMTP spools messages to be sent at a later time.
Periodically, the server checks the queue for messages and attempts to send
them again. If the message is still not delivered after a predetermined expiration
time, it is returned to the sender as undeliverable.

Post Office Protocol

Post Office Protocol (POP) enables a workstation to retrieve mail from a mail
server. With POP, mail is downloaded from the server to the client and then
deleted on the server.
The server starts the POP service by passively listening on TCP port 110 for
client connection requests. When a client wants to make use of the service, it
sends a request to establish a TCP connection with the server. When the
connection is established, the POP server sends a greeting. The client and POP
server then exchange commands and responses until the connection is closed or
aborted.
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Because email messages are downloaded to the client and removed from the
server, there is not a centralized location where email messages are kept.
Because POP does not store messages, it is undesirable for a small business that
needs a centralized backup solution.
POP3 is desirable for an ISP, because it alleviates their responsibility for
managing large amounts of storage for their email servers.
Internet Message Access Protocol

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is another protocol that describes a

method to retrieve email messages. However, unlike POP, when the user
connects to an IMAP-capable server, copies of the messages are downloaded to
the client application. The original messages are kept on the server until
manually deleted. Users view copies of the messages in their email client
software.
Users can create a file hierarchy on the server to organize and store mail. That
file structure is duplicated on the email client as well. When a user

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

decides to delete a message, the server synchronizes that action and deletes the
message from the server.
For small- to medium-sized businesses, there are many advantages to using
IMAP. IMAP can provide long-term storage of email messages on mail servers
and allows for centralized backup. It also enables employees to access email
messages from multiple locations, using different devices or client software. The
mailbox folder structure that a user expects to see is available for viewing
regardless of how the user accesses the mailbox.
For an ISP, IMAP may not be the protocol of choice. It can be expensive to
purchase and maintain the disk space to support the large number of stored
emails. Additionally, if customers expect their mailboxes to be backed up
routinely, that can further increase the costs to the ISP.

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ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP

protocols: physical address, logical address, port address, and application-specific
address. Each address is related to a one layer in the TCP/IP architecture, as shown
in the following Figure.

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 APPLICATION LAYER - OSI MODEL

Physical Addresses
The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node
as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link
layer. It is the lowest-level address. The size and format of these addresses vary
depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical
address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).
Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below.

Example (1)
In Figure below a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (a LAN). At the
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data link layer, this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These
are the only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information
needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error
detection. The data link layer at the sender receives data from an upper layer. It
encapsulates the data in a frame, adding a header and a trailer. The header, among
other pieces of information, carries the receiver and the sender physical (link)
addresses.
Note that in most data link protocols, the destination address 87 in this case,
comes before the source address (10 in this case). The frame is propagated
through the LAN. Each station with a physical address other than 87 drops the
frame because the destination address in the frame does not match its own
physical address. The intended destination computer, however, finds a match
between the destination address in the frame and its own physical address. The
frame is checked, the header and trailer are dropped, and the data part is
decapsulated and delivered to the upper layer.

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Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Physical Addresses

Physical addresses can be either unicast (one single recipient), multicast (a
group of recipients), or broadcast (to be received by all systems in the network).
Some networks support all three addresses.
A source address is always a unicast address—the frame comes from only one
station. The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
The least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address.

Q: Define the type of the following destination

addresses:
1. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A
2. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
3. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
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Logical Addresses
Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are
independent of underlying physical networks. Physical addresses are not adequate
in an internetwork environment where different networks can have different
address formats. A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can
be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network. The logical
addresses are designed for this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is
currently a 32bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to the
Internet. No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the
same IP address.

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Example (2)
The Figure below shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting
three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and
physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one
link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is
connected to three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router
has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection. Although it may be obvious
that each router must have a separate physical address for each connection, it
may. The computer with logical address A and physical address 10 needs to send a
packet to the computer with logical address P and physical address 95. The sender
encapsulates its data in a packet at the network layer and adds two logical
addresses (A and P). Note that in most protocols, the logical source address comes
before the logical destination address (contrary to the order of physical
addresses). The network layer, however, needs to find the physical address of the
next hop before the packet can be delivered. The network layer consults its routing
table and finds the logical address of the next hop (router 1) to be F.

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Sanaa LAN 1
To another
k A/10 ■ a A

F/20

20 10 A P I Data I Routef 1 A P[ iat31

iTrvsu:a

aangtd

33 99 A TT ^3t3l
Router 2

Phryx cal Z BE N: ] 3
■khn

LAN 3
t nid
MB ivor network

Another protocol, Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the physical

address of router 1 that corresponds to its logical address (20). Now the network
layer passes this address to the data link layer, which in turn,
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encapsulates the packet with physical destination address 20 and physical source
address 10. The router decapsulates the packet from the frame to read the logical
destination address P. Since the logical destination address does not match the
router's logical address, the router knows that the packet needs to be forwarded.
The router consults its routing table and ARP to find the physical destination
address of the next hop (router 2), creates a new frame, encapsulates the packet,
and sends it to router 2.
Note the physical addresses in the frame. The source physical address changes
from 10 to 99. The destination physical address changes from 20 (router 1 physical
address) to 33 (router 2 physical address). The logical source and destination
addresses must remain the same; otherwise the packet will be lost. At router 2 we
have a similar scenario. The physical addresses are changed, and a new frame is
sent to the destination computer. When the frame reaches the destination, the
packet is decapsulated. The destination logical address P matches the logical
address of the computer. The data are decapsulated from the packet and delivered
to the upper layer. Note that although physical

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addresses will change from hop to hop, logical addresses remain the same from
the source to destination.

Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses

The logical addresses can be either unicast (one single recipient), multicast (a
group of recipients), or broadcast (all systems in the network).
Port Addresses
The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to
travel from a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination
host is not the final objective of data communications on the Internet. Computers
are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The end objective of
Internet communication is a process communicating
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with another process. For example, computer A can communicate with computer
C by using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with computer B
by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data
simultaneously, we need a method to label the different processes.
In other words, they need addresses. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned
to a process is called a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as shown.

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Example (3)
The following Figure shows two computers communicating via the Internet.
The sending computer is running three processes at this time with port addresses
a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with
process j in the receiving computer. Note that although both computers are using
the same application, FTP, for example, the port addresses are different because
one is a client program and the other is a server program.

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To show that data from process a need to be delivered to process j, and

not k, the transport layer encapsulates data from the application layer in a packet
and adds two port addresses (a and j), source and destination. The packet from
the transport layer is then encapsulated in another packet at the network layer
with logical source and destination addresses (A and P). Finally, this packet is
encapsulated in a frame with the physical source and destination addresses of the
next hop. We have not shown the physical addresses because they change from
hop to hop inside the cloud designated as the Internet. Note that although
physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

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• In the TCP/IP protocol suite, the port numbers are integers between 0 and
65,535.

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• The client program defines itself with a port number, called the ephemeral
port number (chosen randomly). The word ephemeral means short lived.
• The server process must also define itself with a port number (called well-
known port numbers). This port number, however, cannot be chosen
randomly.

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ICANN Ranges (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers)

ICANN has divided the port numbers into three ranges: well-known,
registered, and dynamic (or private)

• Well-known ports: The ports ranging from 0 to 1,023 are assigned and
controlled by ICANN..
• Registered ports: The ports ranging from 1,024 to 49,151 are not assigned or
controlled by ICANN. They can only be registered with ICANN to prevent
duplication.

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•Dynamic ports: The ports ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 are neither
controlled nor registered. They can be used as temporary or private port
numbers. The original recommendation was that the ephemeral port numbers
for clients be chosen from this range. However, most systems do not follow
this recommendation.

Application-Specific Addresses
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that
specific application. Examples include the e-mail address (for example,
[email protected]) and the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for example,
www.mhhe.com). The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to
find a document on the World Wide Web. These addresses, however, get changed
to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending computer.

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DIRECTORY SERVICES

A Directory Service is nothing but a software system that responds to requests

for information about entities, e.g. people in an organization.
X.500 and Network Information Service (NIS) are examples of directory services.

Need of Directory Service

Enterprise Computing Environments have a need to store information in a

centralized data store so that it can be added to, deleted, modified, and queried
by users and applications. The information stored could be user accounts, email
addresses, digital certificates, component object names, network names, printers,
groups and so on. There is a need to access this information both from within the
enterprise and from the Internet. The amount of information stored

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varies greatly with the customer. This data store has come to be known as a
Directory Service.
Directory services not only allow you to locate and access these resources, but
also let you manage the relationships among them.
For our own use, we all maintain personal address directory where we store
addresses, telephone nos. and other information in a format that is most suitable
for us. But when we talk about maintaining a global directory service on Internet
or in any organization, The Directory Service must be:
• Flexible enough to store a range of information types

• Secure when accessing from both the Internet and intranet

• Scalable from a small business to the largest enterprise
• Extensible as business needs change
• Accessible via an open, standards-based protocol

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Using an open protocol enables the information in the Directory Service to be

accessible from clients from different vendors. Directory Services from different
vendors communicating using an open protocol can exchange information with
each other to create aggregated directories.

X.500 Directory

X.500 is a standard for a Directory Service by the International

Telecommunications Union (ITU). X.500, the OSI directory standard, defines a
comprehensive Directory Service, including an information model, namespace,
functional model, and authentication framework. X.500 also defines the Directory
Access Protocol (DAP) used by clients to access the directory. DAP is a full OSI
protocol that contains extensive functionality, much of which is not used by most
applications.

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 Recap

Recap of Previous Topic

• Application Layer
• Functions of the Application layer

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 Topic Objective

- APPLICATION PROTOCOLS
Topic Objective
• We will understand the Various protocols in Application layer
• How various services are provided

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DNS

An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on

different systems, pass the messages to each other.
• DNS stands for Domain Name System.
• DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of
a host on the network and its numerical address.
• DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
• Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a
sequence of symbols specified by dots.
• DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This
allows the users of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking
for other hosts instead of remembering the IP addresses.
• For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of
132.147.165.50, most people would reach this site by specifying

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ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP

address.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is
divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and
inverse domain.

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Label Description

aero Airlines and aerospace companies

biz Businesses or firms

com Commercial Organizations

coop Cooperative business Organizations
edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

info Information service providers
int International Organizations
mil Military groups

museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations

name Personal names
net Network Support centers
org Nonprofit Organizations
pro Professional individual Organizations
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Generic Domains

• It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.

• Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
• It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization
type.

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Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-
character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three
character organizational abbreviations.

Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the
server has received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of
only authorized clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list
or not, it sends a query to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the
name.

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Working of DNS
• DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send
requests to the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
• Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address
known as a forward DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address
which is converted into a name known as reverse DNS lookups.
• DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts
available on the internet.
• If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then
a piece of software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server
to obtain the IP address of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the
IP address associated with a hostname, then it forwards the request to
another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver, which in turn
completes the request over the internet protocol.

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FTP
• FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
• FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting
the files from one host to another.
• It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
• It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
• It provides the sharing of files.
• It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
• It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

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Why FTP?

Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and
straightforward, but sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems
may have different file conventions. Two systems may have different ways to
represent text and data. Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP
protocol overcomes these problems by establishing two connections between
hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, and another connection is used for
the control connection.

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Mechanism of FTP

User

User
interface

Control Control connection Control

process process

Data TCP/IP Data

transfer transfer
process Data connection process

Client Server

The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The
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server has two components: the server control process and the server data
transfer process.
There are two types of connections in FTP:

• Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of
command or line of response at a time. The control connection is made
between the control processes. The control connection remains connected
during the entire interactive FTP session.
• Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data
types may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer

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processes. The data connection opens when a command comes for

transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.
FTP Clients
• FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which
allows you to transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
• It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the
files.
• It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the
files between you and your host and close the connection.
• The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web
browser. This GUI based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy and also
does not require to remember the FTP commands.

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Advantages of FTP:
• Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of
the fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another
computer.
• Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the
operations to get the entire file.
• Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
• Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth.
Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some information to
all the employees, and they all send information back on the same server.

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Disadvantages of FTP:
• The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions
should be encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not
all the providers offer encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP
providers that provides encryption.
• FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a
network. However, the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also
doesn't allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
• Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted
eavesdropping. So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute
force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
• It is not compatible with every system.

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TELNET

• The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example,
users want to run different application programs at the remote site and
transfers a result to the local site. This requires a client-server program such
as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a specific program for
each demand.
• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets
the user access any application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a
program that allows a user to log on to a remote computer. A popular client-
server program Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet is an
abbreviation for Terminal Network.
• Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a
local terminal appears to be at the remote side.

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There are two types of login:

1. Local Login

• When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local login,

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• When the workstation running terminal emulator, the keystrokes entered by

the user are accepted by the terminal driver. The terminal driver then passes
these characters to the operating system which in turn, invokes the desired
application program.
• However, the operating system has special meaning to special characters.
For example, in UNIX some combination of characters have special meanings
such as control character with "z" means suspend. Such situations do not
create any problem as the terminal driver knows the meaning of such
characters. But, it can cause the problems in remote login.

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2.Remote login
TELNET
TELNET
Client Application programs
Server

Operating Operating
system system
TCP
TCP
Pseudoterminal
Terminal T ermmal Data link Driver
Data link
driver
Physical Physical

Interne

o When the user wants to access an application program on a remote

computer, then the user must perform remote login.
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How remote login occurs At the local site

The user sends the keystrokes to the terminal driver, the characters are then
sent to the TELNET client. The TELNET client which in turn, transforms the
characters to a universal character set known as network virtual terminal
characters and delivers them to the local TCP/IP stack
At the remote site

The commands in NVT forms are transmitted to the TCP/IP at the remote
machine. Here, the characters are delivered to the operating system and then
pass to the TELNET server. The TELNET server transforms the characters which
can be understandable by a remote computer. However, the characters cannot
be directly passed to the operating system as a remote operating system does
not receive the characters from the TELNET server. Therefore it requires some
piece of software that can accept

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the characters from the TELNET server. The operating system then passes
these characters to the appropriate application program.

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SMTP

• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to
transmit an electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to other computer
users based on e-mail addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or
different computers, and it also supports:
o It can send a single message to one or more recipients. o Sending
message can include text, voice, video or graphics. o It can also send
the messages on networks outside the internet.
The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between
servers. The servers have a way of identifying themselves and announcing
what kind of communication they are trying to perform. They also have a way
of handling the errors such as incorrect email address. For example, if the
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recipient address is wrong, then receiving server reply with an error message
of some kind.
Components of SMTP

• First, we will break the SMTP client and SMTP server into two components
such as user agent (UA) and mail transfer agent (MTA). The user agent (UA)
prepares the message, creates the envelope and then puts the message in
the envelope. The mail transfer agent (MTA) transfers this mail across the
internet.
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SMTP allows a more complex system by adding a relaying system. Instead of

just having one MTA at sending side and one at receiving side, more MTAs can
be added, acting either as a client or server to relay the email.

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. The relaying system without TCP/IP protocol can also be used to send the
emails to users, and this is achieved by the use of the mail gateway. The mail
gateway is a relay MTA that can be used to receive an email.

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User A

User B

Mail
MIA ,
cu nt
syste
m

Private
MTA network
Internet
Mail gateway

Working of SMTP
1.Composition of Mail: A user sends an e-mail by composing an electronic mail
message using a Mail User Agent (MUA). Mail User Agent is a program which
is used to send and receive mail. The message contains two parts: body and
header. The body is the main part of the message while the header includes
information such as the sender and recipient address. The
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header also includes descriptive information such as the subject of the

message. In this case, the message body is like a letter and header is like an
envelope that contains the recipient's address.
2.Submission of Mail: After composing an email, the mail client then submits
the completed e-mail to the SMTP server by using SMTP on TCP port 25.
3.Delivery of Mail: E-mail addresses contain two parts: username of the
recipient and domain name. For example, [email protected], where "vivek" is
the username of the recipient and "gmail.com" is the domain name. If the
domain name of the recipient's email address is different from the sender's
domain name, then MSA will send the mail to the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA).
To relay the email, the MTA will find the target domain. It checks the MX
record from Domain Name System to obtain the target domain. The MX
record contains the domain name and IP address of the recipient's domain.
Once the record is located, MTA connects to the exchange server to relay the
message.

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4. Receipt and Processing of Mail: Once the incoming message is received, the
exchange server delivers it to the incoming server (Mail Delivery Agent) which
stores the e-mail where it waits for the user to retrieve it.
5. Access and Retrieval of Mail: The stored email in MTA can be retrieved by
using MUA (Mail User Agent). MUA can be accessed by using login and
password.

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SNMP

* SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.

* SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.
* It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.
SNMP Concept

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. SNMP has two components Manager and agent.

. The manager is a host that controls and monitors a set of agents such as
routers.
. It is an application layer protocol in which a few manager stations can handle a
set of agents.
. The protocol designed at the application level can monitor the devices made by
different manufacturers and installed on different physical networks.
. It is used in a heterogeneous network made of different LANs and WANs
connected by routers or gateways.
Managers & Agents
. A manager is a host that runs the SNMP client program while the agent is a
router that runs the SNMP server program.
. Management of the internet is achieved through simple interaction between a
manager and agent.
. The agent is used to keep the information in a database while the manager is
used to access the values in the database. For example, a router can store

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the appropriate variables such as a number of packets received and

forwarded while the manager can compare these variables to determine
whether the router is congested or not.
. Agents can also contribute to the management process. A server program on
the agent checks the environment, if something goes wrong, the agent sends
a warning message to the manager.
Management with SNMP has three basic ideas:
. A manager checks the agent by requesting the information that reflects the
behavior of the agent.
. A manager also forces the agent to perform a certain function by resetting
values in the agent database.
. An agent also contributes to the management process by warning the manager
regarding an unusual condition.

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Management Components
. Management is not achieved only through the SNMP protocol but also the use
of other protocols that can cooperate with the SNMP protocol. Management
is achieved through the use of the other two protocols: SMI (Structure of
management information) and MIB(management information base).
. Management is a combination of SMI, MIB, and SNMP. All these three
protocols such as abstract syntax notation 1 (ASN.1) and basic encoding rules
(BER).

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SMI

The SMI (Structure of management information) is a component used in network

management. Its main function is to define the type of data that can be stored in
an object and to show how to encode the data for the transmission over a
network.

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MIB
. The MIB (Management information base) is a second component for the
network management.
. Each agent has its own MIB, which is a collection of all the objects that the
manager can manage. MIB is categorized into eight groups: system, interface,
address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, and egp. These groups are under the
mib object.

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SNMP Messages

SNMP defines five types of messages: GetRequest, GetNextRequest, SetRequest,

GetResponse, and Trap.

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GetRequest: The GetRequest message is sent from a manager (client) to the agent
(server) to retrieve the value of a variable.
GetNextRequest: The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to agent
to retrieve the value of a variable. This type of message is used to retrieve the
values of the entries in a table. If the manager does not know the indexes of the
entries, then it will not be able to retrieve the values. In such situations,
GetNextRequest message is used to define an object.
GetResponse: The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to the manager in
response to the GetRequest and GetNextRequest message. This message contains
the value of a variable requested by the manager.
SetRequest: The SetRequest message is sent from a manager to the agent to set a
value in a variable.
Trap: The Trap message is sent from an agent to the manager to report an event.
For example, if the agent is rebooted, then it informs the manager as well as sends
the time of rebooting.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

HTTP

. HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.

. It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
. The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
. This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency
that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another document.
. HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another
host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no
control connection to transfer the files.
. HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
. HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and server.
The HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent from the
client to the server and from server to the client. SMTP messages are stored
and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.
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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Features of HTTP:
. Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client
initiates a request and waits for a response from the server. When the server
receives the request, the server processes the request and sends back the
response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects the connection.
The connection between client and server exist only during the current
request and response time only.
. Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent
as long as both the client and server know how to handle the data content. It
is required for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-
type header.
. Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each
other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both
the client and server do not retain the information between various requests
of the web pages.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

HTTP Transactions

The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The
client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to the server. The
server replies to the request message by sending a response message.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message
types follow the same message format.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a
request line, headers, and sometimes a body.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client
that consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

. A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and
to facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform
Resource Locator (URL).
. The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of
information on the internet.
. The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.

URL
Uniform Resource Locator

Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a
server. For example, HTTP.
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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

. Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the
computer is given an alias name. Web pages are mainly stored in the
computers and the computers are given an alias name that begins with the
characters "www". This field is not mandatory.
. Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an
optional field. If the port number is included, then it must come between the
host and path and it should be separated from the host by a colon.
. Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The
path itself contain slashes that separate the directories from the
subdirectories and files.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Other Application Layer Protocols

TFTP:
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a network protocol used to transfer files
between hosts in a TCP/IP network. It is the stripped-down, stock version of FTP
and it doesn't have all of its functions; for example, you cannot list, delete, or
rename files or directories on a remote server. In fact, TFTP can only be used to
send and receive files between the two computers. TFTP doesn't support user
authentication and all data is sent in clear text. So It's a technology for transferring
files between network devices and is a simplified version of FTP
The only real advantage that TFTP has over FTP is that it uses less resources. It
is not widely used today, but Cisco does still use it on its devices, for example to
backup a router's IOS image.

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

Consider the following example:

A user wants to transfer files from Host A to the router R1. R1 is a Cisco device and
it has a TFTP server installed. The user will start an TFTP client program and
initiate the data transfer.
TFTP uses a well-known UDP port 69.

Command
tftp [ options... ] [host [port]] [-c command]

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

NFS:
It stands for network file system.It allows remote hosts to mount file systems over
a network and interact with those file systems as though they are mounted locally.
This enables system administrators to consolidate resources onto centralized
servers on the network.

Command
service nfs start

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

LPD:
It stands for Line Printer Daemon.It is designed for printer sharing.It is the part
that receives and processes the request. A "daemon" is a server or agent.

Command
Ipd [ -d ] [ -l ] [ -D DebugOutputFile]

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

X window:
It defines a protocol for the writing of graphical user interface-based client/server
applications. The idea is to allow a program, called a client, to run on one
computer. It is primarily used in networks of interconnected mainframes.

Command
Run xdm in runlevel 5

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 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS

DHCP:
It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).It gives IP addresses
to hosts.There is a lot of information a DHCP server can provide to a host when
the host is registering for an IP address with the DHCP server. Port number for
DHCP is 67, 68.

Command
clear ip dhcp binding {address | * }

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 Recap

• Various services are provided by different application layer protocols

- HTTP
- DNS
- FTP
- TELNET
- TFTP
- SNMO
- SMTP
- x window

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 Topic Objective

•To Study about Cryptography – basic concepts & Firewalls.

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 Cryptography – basic concepts

• Cryptography :
It is the art of secret writing.
Plain Text :
Normal text that can be read by user and is in readable format.
Cipher Text :
It is in unreadable format and user have to convert cipher text to plain
text.

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 Cryptography – basic concepts

2 Ways of Encryption
Stream ciphers :
In stream ciphers the encryption is done bit by bit.
• Block ciphers :
In block ciphers the encryption is done block by block, where a block is
group of bits.
There are 2 mechanisms for encryption.
1. Asymmetric key encryption or public key encryption.
A pair of public key and private key is used for encryption and
decryption.

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 Cryptography – basic concepts

2. Symmetric key encryption or secret key encryption or single key

encryption.
Same key is used for encryption and decryption.

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 Firewalls

• Firewall

A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and

outgoing network traffic and permits or blocks data packets based on a
set of security rules.

• It is a combination of software and hardware.

• It maintains private network security by applying security policies at

two or more network boundaries.

• The Design goals includes -

• All network traffic must pass through the firewall.

• Only authorized traffic will be allowed to pass from a firewall.

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 Types of Firewalls

Firewalls

Packet filtering Circuit-level Gateway

Application level
Gateway

Source: cyber security, G Padmavathi, swayam

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 Packet Filtering

• It controls network access by analyzing incoming and outgoing

packets.

Security Perimeter

Private
Internet
Network

Packet
filtering
router
Source: cyber security, G Padmavathi, swayam

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 Packet Filtering

• Inspects the packets of data that are passed through the network and accepts or
rejects the packets on the basis of the default or user-defined rules.

• Packet filter is also known as network layer firewall.

• Network layer firewalls are of two types-

• 1. Stateful-

• Stateful firewalls maintain the state information of active session.

• State contains properties, such as source and destination IP addresses, UDP or TCP
ports, and the current stage of the connection’s lifetime.

• 2. Stateless-

• They require less time to filter the packets as they do not maintain the state
information of sessions.
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 Application level Gateway

• It is also known as proxy firewall.

• • It filters the inbound traffic to certain specific applications

Outside connection Inside connection

Inside host
Outside host
Source: cyber security, G Padmavathi, swayam

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 Application level Gateway

• Applies security mechanisms to specific applications such as File

Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Telnet servers.

• Application layer firewalls are based on the application level of the

TCP/IP stack. These firewalls intercept all packets that are sent or
received from an application.

• Application layer firewalls help you in preventing unwanted outside

traffic from reaching to protected machines.

• These firewalls can restrict or prevent spreading of computer worms

and Trojans over a network.

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 Circuit-Level Gateway

It monitors the TCP data packets handshaking to ensure legitimate session

Source: Swayam

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 Circuit-Level Gateway

Applies security mechanisms after establishing a TCP or an UDP

connection.

• The circuit-level gateway firewalls work at the session layer of the

OSI model.

• They monitor TCP handshaking between the packets to determine

whether or not the requested session is legitimate

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 Recap

• Cryptography – basic concepts-

- Plain Text
- Chiper Text
- Ways of Encryption
• Firewall

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 APPENDIX

Difference between Network and Internet

Computers and their systems square measure difficult in their approach, and it
gets doubly robust once you need to comprehend 2 terms associated with this
subject that act already utilized in the regular language, those mentioned
adequately during this article square measure Network and net, they will appear
totally different from one another, and so they will seem like one another.
The most distinction between them comes in their definition; a Network could be
a association of 1 or additional computers placed in associate surroundings, and
also the Internet is that the relationship of computers connecting them from
everywhere the planet.
The basic distinction between network and net is that the Network consists of pcs
that area unit physically connected and may be used as a private computer yet on
share data with one another. Conversely, the Internet could be a technology that
links these little and huge networks with one another and builds a additional in
depth network.

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 APPENDIX

Let's see that the difference between network and internet:

S.NO NETWORK INTERNET
1. Network is defined as the group of two or Whereas internet is the
more computer systems. interrelationship of a few networks.
2. The coverage of network is limited in While it covers large geographical
comparison of internet. area.
3. It provides the link between many While it provide connection among
computers and network-enabled devices. many networks.
4. The types of network are: LAN, MAN, Whereas the types of internet is world
WAN, CAN and HAM. wide web.
5. Through network, hundreds or a few While through internet, millions of
thousands of computer system can linked computer system can linked
simultaneously. simultaneously.
6. It requires less number of hardware While it requires various hardware
devices. devices.

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 APPENDIX

Terminal emulator

A terminal emulator, terminal application, or term, is a computer program

that emulates a video terminal within some other display architecture. Though
typically synonymous with a shell or text terminal, the term terminal covers all
remote terminals, including graphical interfaces. A terminal emulator inside a
graphical user interface is often called a terminal window.
A terminal window allows the user access to a text terminal and all its
applications such as command-line interfaces (CLI) and text user interface (TUI)
applications. These may be running either on the same machine or on a different
one via telnet, ssh, or dial-up. On Unix-like operating systems, it is common to
have one or more terminal windows connected to the local machine.
Terminals usually support a set of escape sequences for controlling color,
cursor position, etc. Examples include the family of terminal control sequence
standards known as ECMA-48, ANSI X3.64 or ISO/IEC 6429.

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 APPENDIX

POSIX
The Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) is a family of standards
specified by the IEEE Computer Society for maintaining compatibility between
operating systems. POSIX defines the application programming interface (API),
along with command line shells and utility interfaces, for software compatibility
with variants of Unix and other operating systems.
In some operating systems, including Unix, a pseudoterminal, pseudotty, or
PTY is a pair of pseudo-devices, one of which, the slave, emulates a hardware text
terminal device, the other of which, the master, provides the means by which a
terminal emulator process controls the slave.
The PTY feature is part of POSIX and the Single Unix Specification in the form
of a posix_openpt() function since 1998.

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 APPENDIX
Write to file (transcript)

User space

script has h
forkO

stdin

ready) stdm()

Kernel space

write ()
stdout
stdout
stderr
stderr
Pseudo ter-
Pseudo ter¬
Terminal minal slave
min a] master
C/dev/pts/. - -)
keyboard input

terminal output

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 APPENDIX

In some operating systems, including Unix, a pseudoterminal, pseudotty, or PTY is

a pair of pseudo-devices, one of which, the slave, emulates a hardware text
terminal device, the other of which, the master, provides the means by which a
terminal emulator process controls the slave.

The PTY feature is part of POSIX and the Single Unix Specification in the form of a
posix_openpt() function since 1998.[1]

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 APPENDIX

PuTTY

PuTTY is a free and open-source terminal emulator, serial console and

network file transfer application. It supports several network protocols, including
SCP, SSH, Telnet, rlogin, and raw socket connection. It can also connect to a serial
port. The name "PuTTY" has no official meaning.
PuTTY was originally written for Microsoft Windows, but it has been ported to
various other operating systems. Official ports are available for some Unix-like
platforms, with work-in-progress ports to Classic Mac OS and macOS, and
unofficial ports have been contributed to platforms such as Symbian, Windows
Mobile and Windows Phone.
PuTTY was written and is maintained primarily by Simon Tatham, a British
programmer.

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 APPENDIX

PuTTY supports many variations on the secure remote terminal, and provides
user control over the SSH encryption key and protocol version, alternate ciphers
such as AES, 3DES, RC4, Blowfish, DES, and Public-key authentication. PuTTY
supports SSO through GSSAPI, including user provided GSSAPI DLLs. It also can
emulate control sequences from xterm, VT220, VT102 or ECMA-48 terminal
emulation, and allows local, remote, or dynamic port forwarding with SSH
(including X11 forwarding). The network communication layer supports IPv6, and
the SSH protocol supports the [email protected] delayed compression scheme. It
can also be used with local serial port connections.
PuTTY comes bundled with command-line SCP and SFTP clients, called "pscp"
and "psftp" respectively, and plink, a command-line connection tool, used for non-
interactive sessions.

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 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and
Online Courses Details

Youtube/other Video Links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsUzPkOxZfA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qZlMS4yJM-E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpQZVYPuDGU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsQ1tFLwldY

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 Glossary Questions

• The physical address, also known as the __________

• ___________ back-up is possible in client-server networks
• One widely-used application protocol is _________, which is the
basis for the World Wide Web.
• A _____ is a program that runs on the local machine requesting
service from the server
• Email messages are stored in databases on ______ servers.
• Full Form of IMAP is________________
• __________enables a workstation to retrieve mail from a mail
server.
• DNS is a client/server network __________ protocol

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 Weekly Assignment

• How File transfer protocol works and what is its advantage?

CO5
• Mention the use of HTTP.
CO5
• List out few email gateways.
CO5
• Elaborate about TELNET and its working procedure.
CO5
• Explain the SNMP protocols in detail.
CO5
• Explain DNS in the internet
CO5
• Write a note on Voice Over IP
CO5
• Explain about email architecture and services
CO5
• Explain cryptography with the help of diagram
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 MCQ

1. The packet of information at the application layer is called

A. Packet
B. Message
C. Segment
D. Frame
2. Which of the following is/are protocols of application layer?
A. FTP
B. TELNET
C. DNS
D. All of the above

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 MCQ

3. Which of the following is not an external security threats?

A. Front door threats
B. Back door threats
C. Underground threats
D. Denial of Services(DoS)

4. The full form of DNS is

A. Domain name system
B. Domain naming system
C. Domain name storage
D. Domain naming storage

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 MCQ

5. TELNET is a
A. Customized program
B. Client/server program
C. Application program
D. All of the above

6. XHTML stands for

A. Extensible Hypertext Markup language
B. Extended Hypertext Markup language
C. Both A & B
D. None of them

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 MCQ

7. Electronic mail uses this Application layer protocol

A. SMTP
B. HTTP
C. FTP
D. SIP
8. The default connection type used by HTTP is______
A. Persistent
B. Non-Persistent
C. Both A & B
D. None of the Above

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 Old Question Papers

18-19
https://drive.google.com/open?id=17OUMNnX0kFDc9
UB8tx8qd8zyEj7lCD5P
17-18
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oFmw__qC7wdUP
85gUkKbkohZvd9Vopm_
16-17
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1eDrOkj2wVsxdTZP
b7-A78YuYn16HC1ob
15-16
https://drive.google.com/open?id=1ljNxmZP1_pl10rbx
JvK6xB1ybG7AMuqU
05/16/2024 151
14-15
manisha ACSE0602 CN Unit Number: 5
 Expected Questions for University Exam

• Explain the mail access protocols in brief

• POP3
• IMAP
• SMTP
• Write a short note on
• FTP
• DNS
• MIME
• Write about email architectures and services?
• What is the difference between active web document and
dynamic web page?
• Explain the SMTP can handle transfer of videos and images.

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 Question paper of University Exam

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 Question paper of University Exam

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 Question paper of University Exam

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 Question paper of University Exam

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 Summary

• The application layer is a node to node communication

• The services are at the application
• Various application protocols work to support the services
provided

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 Recap of Unit

• Application Layer duties

• Domain Name System
• World Wide Web and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
• Electronic mail,
• File Transfer Protocol
• Remote login, Network management
• Data compression
• Cryptography – basic concepts

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 References

1. Forouzen, "Data Communication and Networking", TMH

2. A.S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Pearson Education
3. W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communication, Macmillan Press
4. Gary R.Wright,W.Richard Stevens "TCP/IP Illustrated,Volume2 The
Implementation" Addison-Wesley
5. Michael A. Gallo and William M. Hancock "Computer
communucation and Networking Technology" Cengage Learning
6. Bhavneet Sidhu, An Integrated approach to Computer Networks,
Khanna Publishing House
7. Anuranjan Misra, “Computer Networks”, Acme Learning
8. G. Shanmugarathinam, ”Essential of TCP/ IP”, Firewall Media

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Thank You

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