Newton’s laws of motion

Mechanics is the branch of physics which concerns itself with

forces, and how they affect a body's motion.
Kinematics is the sub-branch of mechanics which studies only a
body's motion without regard to causes.
Dynamics is the sub-branch of mechanics which studies the
forces which cause a body's motion.

The two pillars of

mechanics

Kinematics Dynamics
Galileo Newton
Representing forces as vectors

A force is a push or a pull measured in Newtons.

One force we are very familiar with is the force of gravity, AKA
the weight.
The very concepts of push and pull imply direction. Thus forces
are vectors.
The direction of the weight is down toward the center of the earth.
If you have a weight of 90 Newtons (or 90 N), your weight can be
expressed as a vector: 90 N, down.
We will show later that weight has the formula

Fg = mg where g = 10 m s -2 weight
and m is the mass in kg
Objects as point particles and Free-body diagrams

Fg = mg where g = 10 m s -2 weight
and m is the mass in kg

EXAMPLE: Calculate the weight of a 25-kg object. Free-body

diagram
SOLUTION:
Since m = 25 kg and g = 10 m s-2, mass
W = mg = (25)(10) = 250 N (or 250 n).

force
Note that W inherits its direction from the fact that g
points downward.
We sketch the mass as a point particle (dot), and
the weight as a vector in a free-body diagram: W
Objects as point particles and Free-body diagrams

Certainly there are other forces besides weight that you

are familiar with.
For example, when you set a mass on a tabletop, even
though it stops moving, it still has a weight.
The implication is that the tabletop applies a
counterforce to the weight, called a normal force.
Note that the weight and the normal forces are the same
length – they balance.
FN
The normal force is called a surface contact force. W

FYI The normal force is often called (unwisely) the

reaction force – thus the R designation.
Objects as point particles and Free-body diagrams

Tension T can only be a pull and never a push.

Friction Ff tries to oppose the motion.
Friction Ff is parallel to the contact surface.
Normal FN is perpendicular to the contact surface.
Friction and normal are mutually perpendicular. Ff FN.
Friction and normal are surface contact forces.
Weight Fg is an action-at-a-distance force.
FN

T
Ff the tension
Contact surface

F
Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams

• Weight is sketched from the center of an object.

• Normal is always sketched perpendicular to the contact
surface.
• Friction is sketched parallel to the contact surface.
• Tension is sketched at whatever angle is given.

FN
T

Ff

Fg
Sketching and interpreting free-body diagrams

EXAMPLE: An object has a tension acting on it at 30° as shown.

Sketch in the forces and draw a free-body diagram.

SOLUTION:
Weight is drawn from the center, down.

Free-body diagram
FN
Normal is drawn perpendicular to the surface from the
surface. T
Ff
Friction is drawn par- allel 30°
to the
FN T
surface.
30°
Ff Fg

Fg
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
The resultant (or net) force is just the vector sum of all of the
forces acting on a body.

EXAMPLE: An object has mass of 25 kg. A tension of 50 N and a

friction force of 30 N are acting on it as shown. What is the
resultant force?

SOLUTION:
Since the weight and the normal
forces cancel out in the y-direction, FN
we only need to worry about the
forces in the x-direction. 50 N
Ff T
The net force is thus
50 – 30 = 20 N (+x-dir). 30 N
Fg
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
The resultant (or net) force is just the vector sum of all of the
forces acting on a body.
Fnet = F Fx,net = Fx Fy,net = Fy net force

EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 = 50. N and

F2 = 30. N applied simultaneously to it. What is the resultant
force’s magnitude? F2
F net

30. N
SOLUTION:
Fnet = F = F1 + F2 so we simply
graphically add the two vectors: 50. N F1
The magnitude is given by
Fnet2 = 502 + 302
Fnet = 58 N.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force
The resultant (or net) force is just the vector sum of all of the
forces acting on a body.

Fnet = F Fx,net = Fx Fy,net = Fy net force

EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 = 50. N and F2 =

30. N applied simultaneously to it as shown. What is the resultant
force’s direction?

SOLUTION: F2
Direction is measured from the (+) x-axis. F net

30. N
Opposite and adjacent are given directly, so
use tangent.

50. N F1
tan  = opp / adj = 30 / 50 = 0.6
 = tan-1(0.6) = 31°.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

EXAMPLE: An object has exactly two forces F1 = 50. N and

F2 = 30. N applied simultaneously to it. What is the resultant
force’s magnitude?
F2
SOLUTION:

30. N

50 sin 28
Begin by resolving F1 into its x- F1
and y-components. .N

23 N
50
Then Fnet,x = 44 N and 28°
44 N
Fnet,y = 23 + 30 = 53 N. 50 cos 28
Fnet2 = Fnet,x2 + Fnet,y2
Fnet2 = 442 + 532
Fnet = 69 N.
Solid friction

Recall that friction acts opposite to the intended direction of

motion, and parallel to the contact surface.
Suppose we begin to pull a crate to the right, with gradually
increasing force.
We plot the applied force, and the friction force, as functions of
time:

tension static dynamic

Force

friction friction friction

T
f
Time
static dynamic
Solid friction
During the static phase, the static friction force Ffs exactly
matches the applied (tension) force.
Ffs increases linearly until it reaches a maximum value Ffs,max.
The friction force then almost instantaneously decreases to a
constant value Ffd, called the dynamic friction force.
Take note of the following general properties of the friction force:
Ffs,max

Force
tension
Ffd friction

static Time
dynamic

0 ≤ Ffs ≤ Ffs,max Ffd < Ffs,max Ffd = a constant

Solid friction

So, what exactly causes friction?

People in the manufacturing sector who work with metals know
that the more you smoothen and polish two metal surfaces, the
more strongly they stick together if brought in contact.
In fact, if suitably polished in a vacuum, they will stick so hard that
they cannot be separated.
We say that the two pieces of metal have been cold-welded.
Solid friction
At the atomic level, when two surfaces come into contact, small
peaks on one surface cold weld with small peaks on the other
surface.
Applying the initial sideways force, all of the cold welds oppose
the motion.
If the force is sufficiently large, the cold welds break, and new
peaks contact each other and cold weld.
If the surfaces remain in relative sliding motion, fewer welds have
a chance to form.
We define the unitless constant, called the coefficient of friction
μ, which depends on the composition of the two surfaces, as the
ratio of .
surface
surface11

surface 2
cold welds
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction
Since there are two types of friction, static and dynamic, every
pair of materials will have two coefficients of friction, μs and μd.
In addition to the "roughness" or "smoothness" of the materials,
the friction force depends, not surprisingly, on the normal force FN.
The harder the two surfaces are squished together (this is what
the normal force measures) the colder welds can form.
Here are the relationships between the friction force Ff, the
coefficients of friction μ, and the normal force FN:

Ff ≤ μs FN static Ff = μd FN dynamic friction

Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction

EXAMPLE: A piece of wood with a coin on it is raised y

on one end until the coin just begins to slip. FN
The angle the wood makes with the horizontal is Ff
x
θ = 15°. What is the coefficient of static friction?
mg 15°
θ = 15° FBD, coin

∑Fy = 0 ∑Fx = 0
FN – mg cos 15° = 0 Ff – mg sin 15° = 0
FN = mg cos 15° Ff = mg sin 15°
Ff = μs FN μs = mg sin 15° = tan 15°
mg cos 15°
mg sin 15° = μs mg cos 15° = 0.268
Thus the coefficient of static friction between the metal of the coin
and the wood of the plank is 0.268.
Describing solid friction by coefficients of friction

EXAMPLE: Now suppose the plank of wood is long

y
enough so that you can lower it to the point that the FN
coin keeps slipping, but no longer accelerates (v = 0). Ff
If this new angle is 12°, x
what is the coefficient of dynamic friction?
mg 12°
θ = 12° FBD, coin

∑Fy = 0 ∑Fx = 0
FN – mg cos 12° = 0 Ff – mg sin 12° = 0
FN = mg cos 12° Ff = mg sin 12°
Fd = μd FN
 μd = tan 12° = 0.213
mg sin 12° = μd mg cos 12°
Thus the coefficient of dynamic friction between the metal of the
coin and the wood of the plank is 0.213.
Newton’s laws of motion – The first law
Newton’s first law is related to certain studies made by Galileo
Galilee which contradicted Aristotelian tenets.
Aristotle basically said “The natural state of motion of all objects
L SE
FA
(but the heavenly ones) is one of rest.”
A child will learn that if you stop pushing a wagon, the wagon will
eventually stop moving.
This simple observation will lead the child to come up with a force
law that looks something like this:
“In order for a body to be in motion, there must be
a force acting on A L SE
it.”
F
As we will show on the next slide, both of these
observations are false!
 Inertia will
only change
if there is a
force.
Newton’s laws of motion – The first law
Here’s how Galileo (1564-1642) thought:
If I give a cart a push on a smooth, level surface, it will eventually
stop.
What can I do to increase the distance it rolls without pushing it
harder or changing the slope?
If I can minimize the friction, it’ll go farther.
In fact, he reasoned, if I eliminate the friction altogether the cart
will roll forever!
Galileo called the tendency of an object to
not change its state of motion inertia.
 A body’s velocity will
only change if there
is a net force acting
on it.

Describing the consequences of Newton’s first law for translational

equilibrium
Newton’s first law is drawn from his concept of net force and
Galileo’s concept of inertia.
Newton’s first law says that the velocity of an object will not
change if there is no net force acting on it.
v=0
In his words...“Every body continues in its state of rest, or of
uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change
that state by forces impressed thereon.” v = CONST
In symbols... F
If F = 0, then v = CONST. Newton’s first law
F = 0 is the condition for translational equilibrium.
Translational equilibrium
As a memorable demonstration of inertia – matter’s tendency to
not change its state of motion (or its state of rest) - consider this:
A water balloon is cut very rapidly with a knife.
For an instant the water remains at rest!
Don’t try this at home, kids.
Translational equilibrium 30° 45° T
2
T1 tT
kno 3
m
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via three cords as
shown. Find the tension in each of the three cords,
in terms of m. T3

SOLUTION:
Give each tension a name to organize your effort. mg
FBD, m
Draw a free body diagram of the mass and the knot.
T3 is the easiest force to find. Why?
T1 T2
Since m is not moving, its FBD tells us that 30° 45°
Fy = 0 or T3 – mg = 0 or T3 = mg . T3
FBD, knot
 30° 45° T
Translational equilibrium T1 tT
2

kno 3
m
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via three cords as
shown. Find the tension in each of the three cords,
in terms of m. T3

SOLUTION: T3 = mg
mg
Now we break T1 and T2 down to components.
FBD, m
Looking at the FBD of the knot we see that
T1x = T1 cos 30° = 0.866T1
T1 T2
T1y = T1 sin 30° = 0.500T1
30° 45°
T2x = T2 cos 45° = 0.707T2
T3
T2y = T2 sin 45° = 0.707T2
FBD, knot
 30° 45° T
2
Translational equilibrium T1 tT
kno 3
m
EXAMPLE: An object of mass m is hanging via three
cords as shown. Find the tension in each of the three
cords, in terms of m. T3

SOLUTION: T3 = mg
∑Fx = 0 mg
0.707T2 - 0.866T1 = 0 FBD, m
T2 = 1.225T1
∑Fy = 0
T1 T2
0.707T2 + 0.500T1 - T3 = 0
0.707(1.225T1) + 0.500T1 = T3 30° 45°
T1 = mg / 1.366
T3
T2 = 1.225(mg / 1.366)
T2 = 0.897mg FBD, knot
 30° 45° T
2
Solving problems involving forces and T1 tT
kno 3
resultant force
m

PRACTICE: A 25-kg mass is hanging via three cords as shown.

Find the tension in each of the three cords, in Newtons.
SOLUTION:
Since all of the angles are the same use the formulas we just
derived:
T3 = mg = 25(10) = 250 N
T1 = mg / 1.366 = 25(10) / 1.366 = 180 N
T2 = 0.897mg = 0.897(25)(10) = 220 N

FYI This was an example of using Newton’s first law with v = 0.

The next example shows how to use Newton’s first law when v is
constant, but not zero.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

EXAMPLE: A 1000-kg airplane is flying at a constant velocity of

125 m s-1. Label and determine the value of the weight Fg, the lift
L, the drag Fd and the thrust F if the drag is 25000 N.
L

Fd F
Fg
SOLUTION:
Since the velocity is constant, Newton’s first law applies.
Thus Fx = 0 and Fy = 0.
Fg = mg = 1000(10) = 10000 N (down).
Since Fy = 0, L - Fg = 0, so L = Fg = 10000 N (up).
Fd = 25000 N tries to impede the aircraft (left).
Since Fx = 0, F - Fd = 0, so F = Fd = 25000 N (right).
 a = Fnet / m

Newton’s laws of motion – The second law

Newton reasoned: “If the sum of the forces is not zero,
the velocity will change.”
Newton knew (as we also know) that a change in velocity is an
acceleration.
So Newton then asked himself: “How is the sum of the forces
related to the acceleration?”
Here is what Newton said: “The acceleration of an object is
proportional to the net force acting on it, and inversely proportional
to its mass.”
The bigger the force the bigger the acceleration, and the bigger
the mass the smaller the acceleration.
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law

Looking at the form F = ma note that

if a = 0, then F = 0.
But if a = 0, then v = CONST.
Thus Newton’s first law is just a special case of his second –
namely, when the acceleration is zero.

FYI
The condition a = 0 can is thus the condition for translational
equilibrium, just as F = 0 is.
Finally, if you take a physics course and you can’t use notes,
memorize the more general formulas.
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law

EXAMPLE: An object has a mass of 25 kg. A tension of 50 N and

a friction force of 30 N are acting on it as shown. FN
What is its acceleration?
50 N
Ff T
SOLUTION:
The vertical forces Fg and FN cancel out. 30 N
Fg
The net force is thus
Fnet = 50 – 30 = 20 n (+x-dir).
From Fnet = ma we get 20 = 25 a so that
a = 20 / 25 = 0.8 m s-2 (+x-dir).
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law

PRACTICE: Use F = ma to show that the formula for weight is

correct.

SOLUTION:
F = ma.
But F is the weight Fg.
And a is the freefall acceleration g.
Thus F = ma becomes Fg = mg.
Newton’s laws of motion – The second law
Fnet = ma (or F = ma ) Newton’s second law

EXAMPLE: A 1000-kg airplane is flying in perfectly level flight. The

drag Fd is 25000 N and the thrust F is 40000 N. Find its
acceleration.
L

Fd F
Fg
SOLUTION:
Since the flight is level, Fy = 0.
Fx = F – Fd = 40000 – 25000 = 15000 N = Fnet.
From Fnet = ma we get 15000 = 1000a, or
a = 15000 / 1000 = 15 m s-2.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object has exactly two forces F1 = 40. N and

F2 = 30. N applied simultaneously to it. What is the object’s
acceleration?
F2
SOLUTION:

30 N

40 sin 25
Resolve F1 into its components: F1
N

17 N
Then Fnet,x = 36 N and 40
Fnet,y = 17 + 30 = 47 N. Then 25°
36 N
Fnet = Fnet,x + Fnet,y
2 2 2
40 cos 25
Fnet2 = 362 + 472 and Fnet = 59 N.
Then from Fnet = ma we get 59 = 25a, or
a = 59 / 25 = 2.4 m s-2.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object resting on a frictionless incline is

released, as shown. What is its acceleration?
FN

6.0 m
60

30
SOLUTION:
mg cos 30 30°
Begin with a FBD.
mg sin 30 mg
Break down the weight into its components.
Since FN and mg cos 30°are perpendicular to the path of the crate
they do NOT contribute to its acceleration.
Thus Fnet = ma
mg sin 30° = ma
a = 10 sin 30° = 5.0 m s-2.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

EXAMPLE: A 25-kg object resting on u=0

a frictionless incline is released, a=
as shown. What is its speed at the bottom? 5m

6.0 m
s -2
s v=?
SOLUTION: 30°
We found that its acceleration is 5.0 m s-2.
We will use v 2 = u 2 + 2as to find v, so we need s.
We have opposite and we want hypotenuse s so from
trigonometry, we use sin  = opp / hyp.
Thus s = hyp = opp / sin  = 6 / sin 30° = 12 m and
v2 = u2 + 2as = 02 + 2(5)(12) = 120
so that v = 11 m s-1.
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

EXAMPLE: A 100. N crate is to be dragged y

across the floor by an applied force F = 60 N, FN F
as shown. The coefficients of static and Ff
dynamic friction are 0.75 and 0.60, 30°
x
respectively. What is the acceleration of the crate? a
mg
FBD, crate
SOLUTION:
Static friction will oppose the applied force until it is overcome.

F FYI Since friction is proportional to

FN 30° the normal force, be aware of
a problems where an applied force
Ff
changes the normal force.
mg
Solving problems involving forces and resultant force

SOLUTION:
Determine if the crate even moves.
Thus, find the maximum value of the static y
FN F
friction, and compare it to the horizontal
applied force: Ff 30°
x
FH = F cos 30° = 60 cos 30° = 51.96 n. a
The maximum static friction force is mg
Fs,max = μs FN = 0.75FN FBD, crate
The normal force is found from...
FN + F sin 30° - mg = 0
FN + 60 sin 30° - 100 = 0 FN = 70
Fs,max = 0.75(70) = 52.5 N
Thus the crate will not even begin to move!
EXAMPLE: If someone gives the crate a small push (of how
much?) it will “break” loose. What will its acceleration be then?

SOLUTION:
y
The horizontal applied force is still FN F
F cos 30° = 60 cos 30° = 51.96 N. Ff 30°
The dynamic friction force is x
Fd = μd FN = 0.60FN. a
The reaction force is still FN = 70. N. mg
Thus Fd = 0.60(70) = 42 N. FBD, crate

The crate will accelerate.

F cos 30° - Fd = ma
51.96 - 42 = (100 / 10)a
a = 0.996 m/s2
Examples of Forces

In addition to being able to calculate the force of gravity ()

the magnitude of other forces can be determined.

For objects that can be stretched and compressed, we have

Hooke’s Law (FH).
For a small sphere moving through a fluid, we have an equation to
determine the viscous drag, Stoke’s Law (Fd).
For a body that displaces a fluid, we have buoyancy (Fb).

Charged and magnetic objects will also experience forces,

electric force (FE) and magnetic force (FM), but the equations for
these will not be needed until fields are introduced.
Examples of Forces – Hooke’s Law
𝐹 𝐻 =− 𝑘𝑥 Hooke’s Law

Consider a spring mounted to a wall as shown.

If we pull the spring to the right, it resists in direct
proportion to the distance it is stretched.
If we push to the left, it does the same thing.
It turns out that the spring force F is given by

The minus sign gives the force the correct direction, namely,
opposite the direction of the displacement x.
Since F is in (N) and x is in (m), the units for the spring constant
k are (N m-1).
EXAMPLE: A 2.0 kg mass is hung from a spring displacing it 5.0
cm when motionless. Sketch a FBD and determine its spring
constant, k.

SOLUTION:

y
FH

x
mg
Or FBD, spring
Examples of Forces – Viscous Drag
𝐹 𝑑 =6 𝜋𝜂 𝑟𝑣 Stoke’s Law

When an object moves through a fluid (liquid or gas) it must

displace that fluid, since they occupy the same physical space.

For a sphere of radius , moving at a velocity , through a fluid with

viscosity , the drag force is described above. The drag force will
always be in the opposite direction as the velocity, despite no
negative sign in the equation.

FYI the fluid viscosity is often referred to as dynamic viscosity

EXAMPLE: A 4.08 g glass marble (10 mm diameter) is dropped in
oil (. Determine the terminal velocity () of the marble.

SOLUTION: ()

y
Fd

x
mg
FBD, spring
Examples of Forces – Buoyancy
𝐹 𝑏= 𝜌 𝑉𝑔 Buoyancy

When an object is placed in a fluid, it

experiences an upward force called
buoyancy. This force is caused by the
pressure difference between the bottom
and top of the object.

The object displaces a volume V () of a

fluid with density (), and the fluid
pushes back on the object to oppose it.

FYI objects float when their density is lower than the fluid’s
density that they displace.
EXAMPLE: A balloon (0.5 g) is filled with Helium to a volume of .
Determine the balloon’s acceleration.

SOLUTION: density of the air is used for buoyancy, also need to

convert to :
y
Fb

x
mg
FBD, spring

FYI density if often expressed in so conversion to SI units if

necessary
Newton’s laws of motion – The third law
In words “For every action force there is an equal and opposite
reaction force.”
In symbols

FAB = -FBA Newton’s third law

FAB is the force on body A by body B.
FBA is the force on body B by body A.

In the big picture, if every force in the universe has a reaction

force that is equal and opposite, the sum of all the forces in the
whole universe is zero!

FYI So why are there accelerations all around us?

Because each force of the action-reaction pair acts on a different
mass.
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law

EXAMPLE: When you push on a door with

10 N, the door pushes you back with
the u r
exactly the same 10 N, but in the opposite do yo n
direction. Why does the door move, and not re or ’s ctio
ac a
tio
you? n
FBA FAB
SOLUTION: Even though the forces are
equal and opposite, they are acting on B
A A
different bodies.
Each body acts in response only to the force acting on it.
The door CAN’T resist FAB, but you CAN resist FBA.
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law

EXAMPLE: FBE
Consider a baseball resting on a tabletop. NBT
Discuss each of the forces acting on the
baseball, and the associated reaction force.
NTB

SOLUTION:
Acting on the ball is its weight FBE
FEB
prior to contact with the table.
Note that FBE (the weight force) and NBT
(the normal force) are acting on the ball.
NTB (the normal force) acts on the table.
FEB (the weight force) acts on the earth.
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
We define a system as a collection of more than one body,
mutually interacting with each other.

EXAMPLE: Three billiard balls

interacting on a pool table constitute a system.

The action-reaction force pairs between the balls are called

internal forces.
For any system, all internal forces always cancel!
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
We define a system as a collection of more than one body,
mutually interacting with each other.

EXAMPLE: Three colliding billiard balls constitute a system.

Discuss all of the internal forces.
The internal force pairs only exist while the balls are in
contact with one another.
Note that a blue force and a red force act on the
cue ball. The white ball responds only to those two forces.
Note that a single cue force acts on the red ball. The red ball
responds only to that single force.
Note that a single cue force acts on the blue ball. The blue ball
responds only to that single force.
Identifying force pairs in context of Newton’s third law
We define a system as a collection of more than one body,
mutually interacting with each other.

EXAMPLE: Three billiard balls interacting on a pool table

constitute a system. Describe the external forces.

External forces are the forces that the balls feel from external
origins (not each other).
For billiard balls, these forces are the balls’ weights, their reaction
forces, the cushion forces, and the cue stick forces.