Digestive

System

Salome nadaraia .

Nutrientiology.
1. Lecture 2
2. 26.03.24
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
What does the
 digestive system do?
The organs that make
up your GI tract, in the
order that they are Your digestive system is
connected, include : uniquely constructed to do its
job of turning your food into
 your mouth, the nutrients and energy you
need to survive. And when
 esophagus, it’s done with that, it handily
packages your solid waste, or
 stomach, stool, for disposal when you
have a bowel movement.
 small intestine,
 large intestine and anus.
Food digestion, absorption, transport.

 We need food to fuel our bodies for energy, growth and repair.
 The digestive system converts the foods we eat into their simplest forms, like glucose
(sugars), amino acids (that make up protein) or fatty acids (that make up fats). The
broken-down food is then absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine and
the nutrients are carried to each cell in the body.

The digestive tract begins at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is like a long muscular
tube, up to 10 metres long, with digestive organs attached along the way.
Anatomy of the Digestive Tract

• The mouth and

oesophagus
• The stomach
• The small intestine
• Pancreas
• Liver
• The large intestine
 Mouth The process of digestion begins Small Intestine
in the mouth.
Esophagus to the Stomach The
At the beginning of the
esophagus has a sphincter muscle
 As you chew, your teeth crush large small intestine, the chyme
at each end. During a swallow, the
pieces of food into smaller ones, and bypasses the opening
upper esophageal sphincter opens.
fluids from foods, beverages, and from the common bile
salivary glands blend with these pieces The bolus then slides down the
duct, which is dripping
to ease swallowing. esophagus, which passes through a
fluids , into the small
hole in the diaphragm to the
 Fluids also help dissolve the food so intestine from two organs
that you can taste it; stomach.
outside the GI tract—the
The lower esophageal sphincter at
 only particles in solution can react with gallbladder and the
the entrance to the stomach closes
taste buds. pancreas.
behind the bolus so that it
 When stimulated, the taste buds The chyme travels on
proceeds forward and doesn’t slip
detect one, or a combination, down the small intestine
back into the esophagus
 of the four basic taste sensations:
through its three
sweet, sour, bitter, and salty The large intestine segments—the
duodenum, the jejunum,
Once all the nutrients have been absorbed, the waste is and the ileum.
moved into the large intestine, or bowel. Water is removed
and the waste (faeces) is stored in the rectum. It can then
be passed out of the body through the anus.
Most fibers pass through the large intestine and are
excreted as feces;
some fat, cholesterol, and minerals bind to fiber and are
also excreted.
 The Muscular Action of Digestion
Peristalsis is the automatic
 In the mouth, chewing, the addition of saliva,
wave-like movement of the
and the action of the tongue transform food muscles that line your
into a coarse mash that can be swallowed. gastrointestinal tract. Peristalsis
moves food through your
 After swallowing, you are generally unaware of
all the activity that follows. digestive system, beginning in
your throat when you swallow
 As is the case with so much else that happens
and continuing through your
in the body, the muscles of the digestive tract
meet internal needs without any conscious esophagus, stomach and
effort on your part. intestines while you digest.
 They keep things moving ◆ at just the right
pace, slow enough to get the job done and fast
enough to make progress.
 Stomach Action

Segmentation
 The stomach has the thickest
walls and strongest muscles of The circular muscles of the intestines
all the GI tract organs. In rhythmically contract and squeeze
addition to the circular and their contents .
longitudinal muscles, it has a
third layer of diagonal muscles
that also alternately contract
and relax.

 Meanwhile, the stomach wall

releases gastric juices. When
the chyme is completely
liquefied, the pyloric sphincter
opens briefly, about three
times a minute, to allow small
portions of chyme to pass
through.
What are the secretory
organs?
 The Secretions of Digestion
The breakdown of food into nutrients requires secretions from
five different organs:
 the salivary glands,
 the stomach,
 the pancreas,
 the liver (via the gallbladder),
 and the small intestine.

The enzymes involved in digestion facilitate a chemical reaction

known as hydrolysis—the addition of water (hydro) to break (lysis) a
molecule into smaller pieces.
Gastric lipase, for example, is a stomach enzyme that acts on lipids,
whereas pancreatic lipase comes from the pancreas (and also works
on lipids).
The salivary glands, squirt just enough saliva to moisten each
mouthful of food so that it can pass easily down the esophagus .
Gastric Juice
 Gastric Juice -In the stomach, gastric glands secrete
gastric juice,
 a mixture of water,
 enzymes,
 and hydrochloric acid, which acts primarily in protein
digestion.
 The acid is so strong that it causes the sensation of
heartburn if it happens to reflux into the esophagus.

 The strong acidity of the stomach prevents:

 bacterial growth and kills most bacteria that enter the
body with food.
 It would destroy the cells of the stomach as well, but
for their natural defenses.
 To protect themselves from gastric juice, the cells of the
stomach wall secrete mucus, a thick, slippery, white
substance that coats the cells, protecting them from the
acid, enzymes, and disease-causing bacteria that might
otherwise harm them .
The pancreatic juice

 The pancreatic juice -contains enzymes that act on all three energy nutrients, and the cells of the
intestinal wall also possess digestive enzymes on their surfaces.
 In addition to enzymes, the pancreatic juice contains -sodium bicarbonate, which is basic or
alkaline—the opposite of the stomach’s acid , The pancreatic juice thus neutralizes the acidic
chyme arriving in the small intestine from the stomach.
 Bile also flows into the duodenum.
 The liver continuously produces bile, which is then concentrated and stored in the gallbladder.
Evaluation of nutrition status

Evaluation of nutritional status is critical,

either to identify if an individual has nutritional imbalance due to an underlying condition or to assess if
an individual is likely to develop a pathological condition due to nutritional imbalance.
Nutritional requirements of healthy individuals depend on various factors, such as
age,
sex,
and activity.
 As per WHO guidelines, malnutrition encompasses three categories, namely,
• Undernutrition (low weight-for-height, low height-for-age, and low weight-for-age),
• Micronutrient (vitamins and minerals) deficiency or excess, and
• Overnutrition (overweight, obesity, and other diet-related health conditions such as type 2 diabetes
mellitus, cardiovascular disorders, etc.).
Malnutrition

 Malnutrition is an imbalance between the nutrients

your body needs to function and the nutrients it
gets. It can mean undernutrition or overnutrition.
You can be malnourished from an overall lack of
calories, or you might have a protein, vitamin or
mineral deficiency. You might also have more
excess calories than your body knows what to do
with.
What are the 4 types of malnutrition?
 Undernutrition
 Undernutrition is what most people think of when they think of malnutrition. Undernutrition is a deficiency of nutrients. You may be
undernourished if you don’t have an adequate diet, or if your body has trouble absorbing enough nutrients from your food. Undernutrition can
cause visible wasting of fat and muscle, but it can also be invisible. You can be overweight and undernourished.
 Macronutrient undernutrition
 Also called protein-energy undernutrition, this is a deficiency of macronutrients: proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Macronutrients are the main
building blocks of your diet, the nutrients that your body relies on to produce energy to maintain itself. Without them — or even just one of
them — your body soon begins to fall apart, breaking down tissues and shutting down nonessential functions to conserve its low energy.
 Micronutrient undernutrition
 Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals. Your body needs these in smaller amounts, but it does need them, for all types of functions. Many
people are mildly deficient in certain vitamins and minerals from a lack of variety in their diet. You might not notice a mild vitamin
deficiency affecting you, but as micronutrient undernutrition becomes more severe, it can begin to have serious and lasting effects.
 Overnutrition
 The World Health Organization has recently added overnutrition to its definition of malnutrition to recognize the detrimental health effects
that can be caused by excessive consumption of nutrients. This includes the effects of overweight and obesity, which are strongly associated
with a list of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). It also includes the toxicity that can result from overdosing specific micronutrients.
Evaluation of anthropometric data: growth
and development
Anthro­pometric indices and their modes of expression:

Weight-for-height
Height-for-age
Weight-for-age
Body mass index (BMI) is the inter­nationally recom­mended index
of over­weight and obesity in children and adults and calculated as:

BMI Categories:
Underweight = <18.5
Normal weight = 18.5–24.9
Overweight = 25–29.9
Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater
 Calculate your body
mass index
Diet-planning principles:

• balance (dietary): providing foods in proportion to

 • Adequacy each other and in proportion to the body’s needs.
• kcalorie (energy) control: management of food
 • Balance energy intake.
 • kCalorie (energy) • nutrient density: a measure of the nutrients a
control food provides relative to the energy it provides.
The more nutrients and the fewer kcalories, the
 • Nutrient Density higher the nutrient density.
 • Moderation • empty-kcalorie foods: a popular term used to
denote foods that contribute energy but lack
 • Variet protein, vitamins, and minerals.
• moderation (dietary): providing enough but not
too much of a substance.
• variety (dietary): eating a wide selection of foods
within and among the major food groups
Five food groups:

 • Fruits
 • Vegetables
 • Grains
 • Meat and legumes
 • Milk
 Whole-grain bread is more nutritious than other
breads, even enriched bread.
Foods generally high in nutrient density (choose most
often)
 These foods contribute folate, niacin, riboflavin,
thiamin, iron, magnesium, selenium, and fiber.3 n.
 Whole grains (amaranth, barley, brown rice,
buckwheat, bulgur, millet, oats, quinoa, rye, wheat)
and whole-grain, low-fat breads, cereals, crackers, and
pastas; popcorn.
 Enriched bagels, breads, cereals, pastas (couscous,
macaroni, spaghetti), pretzels, rice, rolls, tortillas.
Foods lower in nutrient density (limit selections)
 Biscuits, cakes, cookies, cornbread, crackers,
croissants, doughnuts, French toast, fried rice, granola,
muffins, pancakes, pastries, pies, presweetened
cereals, taco shells, waffles.