Topic1

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The Microprocessor Age
• World’s first microprocessor the Intel 4004.
• A 4-bit microprocessor-programmable
controller on a chip.
• Addressed 4096, 4-bit-wide memory locations.
– a bit is a binary digit with a value of one or zero
– 4-bit-wide memory location often called a nibble
• The 4004 instruction set contained 45
instructions.

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• Fabricated with then-current state-of-the-art
P-channel MOSFET technology.
• Executed instructions at 50 KIPs (kilo-
instructions per second).
– slow compared to 100,000 instructions per
second by 30-ton ENIAC computer in 1946
• Difference was that 4004 weighed less than
an ounce.
• 4-bit microprocessor debuted in early game
systems and small control systems.
– early shuffleboard game produced by Bailey
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• Main problems with early microprocessor
were speed, word width, and memory size.
• Evolution of 4-bit microprocessor ended when
Intel released the 4040, an updated 4004.
– operated at a higher speed; lacked improvements
in word width and memory size
• Texas Instruments and others also produced
4-bit microprocessors.
– still survives in low-end applications such as
microwave ovens and small control systems
– Calculators still based on 4-bit BCD (binary-
coded decimal) codes
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• With the microprocessor a commercially viable
product, Intel released 8008 in 1971.
– extended 8-bit version of 4004 microprocessor
• Addressed expanded memory of 16K bytes.
– A byte is generally an 8-bit-wide binary number
and a K is 1024.
– memory size often specified in K bytes
• Contained additional instructions, 48 total.
• Provided opportunity for application in more
advanced systems.
– engineers developed demanding uses for 8008
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• Somewhat small memory size, slow speed,
and instruction set limited 8008 usefulness.
• Intel introduced 8080 microprocessor in 1973.
– first of the modem 8-bit microprocessors
• Motorola Corporation introduced MC6800
microprocessor about six months later.
• 8080—and, to a lesser degree, the MC6800—
ushered in the age of the microprocessor.
– other companies soon introduced their own
versions of the 8-bit microprocessor

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Table 1–1 Early 8-bit microprocessors

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• Only Intel and Motorola continue to create
new, improved microprocessors.
– IBM also produces Motorola-style
microprocessors
• Motorola sold its microprocessor division.
– now called Freescale Semiconductors, Inc.
• Zilog still manufactures microprocessors.
– microcontrollers and embedded controllers
instead of general-purpose microprocessors

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What Was Special about the 8080?
• 8080 addressed four times more memory.
– 64K bytes vs l6K bytes for 8008
• Executed additional instructions; 10x faster.
– addition taking 20 µs on an 8008-based system
required only 2.0 µs on an 8080-based system
• TTL (transistor-transistor logic) compatible.
– the 8008 was not directly compatible
• Interfacing made easier and less expensive.

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• The MITS Altair 8800, was released in 1974.
– number 8800 probably chosen to avoid copyright
violations with Intel
• BASIC language interpreter for the Altair 8800
computer developed in 1975.
– Bill Gates and Paul Allen, founders of Microsoft
Corporation
• The assembler program for the Altair 8800
was written by Digital Research Corporation.
– once produced DR-DOS for the personal
computer

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The 8085 Microprocessor
• In 1977 Intel Corporation introduced an
updated version of the 8080—the 8085.
• Last 8-bit, general-purpose microprocessor
developed by Intel.
• Slightly more advanced than 8080; executed
software at an even higher speed.
– 769,230 instructions per second vs 500,000 per
second on the 8080).

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• Main advantages of 8085 were its internal
clock generator and system controller, and
higher clock frequency.
– higher level of component integration reduced
the 8085’s cost and increased its usefulness
• Intel has sold over 100 million of the 8085.
– its most successful 8-bit, general-purpose
microprocessor.
– also manufactured by many other companies,
meaning over 200 million in existence
• Applications that contain the 8085 will likely
continue to be popular.
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• Zilog Corporation sold 500 million of their
8-bit Z80microprocessors.
• The Z-80 is machine language–compatible
with the 8085.
• Over 700 million microprocessors execute
8085/Z-80 compatible code.

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The Modern Microprocessor
• In 1978 Intel released the 8086; a year or so
later, it released the 8088.
• Both devices are 16-bit microprocessors.
– executed instructions in as little as 400 ns (2.5
millions of instructions per second)
– major improvement over execution speed of 8085
• 8086 & 8088 addressed 1M byte of memory.
– 16 times more memory than the 8085
– 1M-byte memory contains 1024K byte-sized
memory locations or 1,048,576 bytes
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• Higher speed and larger memory size allowed
8086 & 8088 to replace smaller
minicomputers in many applications.
• Another feature was a 4- or 6-byte instruction
cache or queue that prefetched instructions
before they were executed.
– queue sped operation of many sequences of
instruction
– basis for the much larger instruction caches
found in modem microprocessors.

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• Increased memory size and additional
instructions in 8086/8088 led to many
sophisticated applications.
• Improvements to the instruction set included
multiply and divide instructions.
– missing on earlier microprocessors
• Number of instructions increased.
– from 45 on the 4004, to 246 on the 8085
– over 20,000 variations on the 8086 & 8088

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• These microprocessors are called CISC
(complex instruction set computers).
– additional instructions eased task of developing
efficient and sophisticated applications
• 16-bit microprocessor also provided more
internal register storage space.
– additional registers allowed software to be
written more efficiently
– evolved to meet need for larger memory systems

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• Popularity of Intel ensured in 1981 when IBM
chose the 8088 in its personal computer.
• Spreadsheets, word processors, spelling
checkers, and computer-based thesauruses
were memory-intensive .
– required more than 64K bytes of memory found

in 8-bit microprocessors to execute efficiently

– The 16-bit 8086 and 8088 provided 1M byte of
memory for these applications

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The 80286 Microprocessor
• Even the 1M-byte memory system proved
limiting for databases and other applications.
– Intel introduced the 80286 in 1983
– an updated 8086
• Almost identical to the 8086/8088.
– addressed 16M-byte memory system instead
of a 1M-byte system
• Instruction set almost identical except for a
few additional instructions.
– managed the extra 15M bytes of memory
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• 80286 clock speed increased in 8.0 Mhz
version.
– executed some instructions in as little as 250 ns
(4.0 MIPs)
• Some changes to internal execution of
instructions led to eightfold increase in speed
for many instructions.

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The 32-Bit Microprocessor
• Applications demanded faster microprocessor
speeds, more memory, and wider data paths.
• Led to the 80386 in 1986 by Intel.
– major overhaul of 16-bit 8086–80286 architecture
• Intel’s first practical microprocessor to contain
a 32-bit data bus and 32-bit memory address.
– Intel produced an earlier, unsuccessful 32-bit
microprocessor called iapx-432

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• Through 32-bit buses, 80386 addressed up
to 4G bytes of memory.
– 1G memory = 1024M, or 1,073,741,824 locations
– 1,000,000 typewritten, double-spaced pages of
ASCII text data
• 80386SX addressed 16M bytes of memory
through a 16-bit data and 24-bit address bus.
• 80386SL/80386SLC addressed 32M bytes
memory via 16-bit data, 25-bit address bus.
• 80386SLC contained an internal cache to
process data at even higher rates.
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• Intel released 80386EX in 1995.
• Called an embedded PC.
– contains all components of the AT class
computer on a single integrated circuit
• 24 lines for input/output data.
• 26-bit address bus; 16-bit data bus.
• DRAM refresh controller.
• Programmable chip selection logic

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• Applications needing higher speeds and large
memory systems include software systems
that use a GUI, or graphical user interface
• Modern graphical displays contain 256,000
or more picture elements (pixels, or pels).
• VGA (variable graphics array) resolution is
640 pixels per scanning line by 480 lines.
– resolution used to display computer boot screen
• To display one screen of information, each
picture element must be changed.
– requires a high-speed microprocessor
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• GUI packages require high microprocessor
speeds and accelerated video adapters for
quick and efficient manipulation of video text
and graphical data.
– the most striking system is Microsoft Windows
• GUI often called a WYSIWYG (what you see
is what you get) display.

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• 32-bit microprocessor needed due to size of
its data bus.
– transfers real (single-precision floating-point)
numbers that require 32-bit-wide memory
• To process 32-bit real numbers, the
microprocessor must efficiently pass them
between itself and memory.
– with 8-bit data bus, takes four read or write cycles
– only one read or write cycle is required for 32 bit
• Significantly increases speed of any program
that manipulates real numbers.
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• High-level languages, spreadsheets, and
database management systems use real
numbers for data storage.
– also used in graphical design packages that use
vectors to plot images on the video screen
– CAD (computer-aided drafting/design)
systems as AUTOCAD, ORCAD
• 80386 had higher clocking speeds and
included a memory management unit.
– allowed memory resources to be allocated
and managed by the operating system

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• 80386 included hardware circuitry for memory
management and assignment.
– improved efficiency, reduced software overhead
– earlier microprocessors left memory
management completely to the software
• Instruction set, memory management upward-
compatible with 8086, 8088, and 80286.
– additional instructions referenced 32-bit registers
and managed the memory system
• Features allowed older, 16-bit software to
operate on the 80386 microprocessor.
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The 80486 Microprocessor
• In 1989 Intel released the 80486.
• Highly integrated package.
• 80386-like microprocessor.
• 80387-like numeric coprocessor.
• 8K-byte cache memory system.

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• Internal structure of 80486 modified so about
half of its instructions executed in one clock
instead of two clocks.
– in a 50 MHz version, about half of instructions
executed in 25 ns (50 MIPs)
– 50% over 80386 operated at same clock speed
• Double-clocked 80486DX2 executed
instructions at 66 MHz, with memory transfers
at 33 MHz.
– called a double-clocked microprocessor

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• A triple-clocked version improved speed to
100 MHz with memory transfers at 33 MHz.
– about the same speed as 60 MHz Pentium.
• Expanded 16K-byte cache.
– in place of standard 8K-byte cache
• Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) produced a
triple-clocked version with a bus speed of 40
MHz and a clock speed of 120 MHz.
• The future promises rates 10 GHz or higher.

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• Other versions called OverDrive processors.
– a double-clocked 80486DX that replaced an
80486SX or slower-speed 80486DX
– functioned as a doubled-clocked version of the
microprocessor

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The Pentium Microprocessor
• Introduced 1993, Pentium was similar to
80386 and 80486 microprocessors.
• Originally labeled the P5 or 80586.
– Intel decided not to use a number because it
appeared to be impossible to copyright a number
• Introductory versions operated with a clocking
frequency of 60 MHz & 66 MHz, and a speed
of 110 MIPs.

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• Double-clocked Pentium at 120 MHz and 133
MHz, also available.
– fastest version produced 233 MHz Pentium
a three and one-half clocked version
• Cache size was increased to 16K bytes from
the 8K cache found in 80486.
• 8K-byte instruction cache and data cache.
• Memory system up to 4G bytes.
• Data bus width increased to a full 64 bits.
• Data bus transfer speed 60 MHz or 66 MHz.
– depending on the version of the Pentium
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• Wider data bus width accommodated double-
precision floating-point numbers used in high-
speed, vector-generated graphical displays.
– should allow virtual reality software and video to
operate at more realistic rates
• Widened data bus and higher speed allow
full-frame video displays at scan rates of 30
Hz or higher.
– comparable to commercial television

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• Recent Pentium versions also included
additional instructions.
– multimedia extensions, or MMX instructions
• Intel hoped MMX would be widely used
– few software companies have used
– no high-level language support for instructions
• OverDrive (P24T) for older 80486 systems.
• 63 MHz version upgrades 80486DX2 50 MHz
systems; 83 MHz upgrades 66 MHz systems.
– system performs somewhere between a 66 MHz
Pentium and a 75 MHz Pentium
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• Pentium OverDrive represents ideal upgrade
path from the 80486 to the Pentium.
– executes two instructions not dependent on each
other, simultaneously per clocking period
– dual integer processors most ingenious feature
– contains two independent internal integer
processors called superscaler technology
• Jump prediction speeds execution of program
loops; internal floating-point coprocessor
handles floating-point data.
• These portend continued success for Intel.

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• Intel may allow Pentium to replace some
RISC (reduced instruction set computer)
machines.
• Some newer RISC processors execute more
than one instruction per clock.
– through superscaler technology
• Motorola, Apple, and IBM produce PowerPC, a
RISC with two integer units and a floating-
point unit.
– boosts Macintosh performance, but slow to
efficiently emulate Intel microprocessors

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• Currently 6 million Apple Macintosh systems
• 260 million personal computers based on Intel
microprocessors.
• 1998 reports showed 96% of all PCs shipped
with the Windows operating system.
• Apple computer replaced PowerPC with the
Intel Pentium in most of its computer systems.
– appears that PowerPC could not keep pace with
the Pentium line from Intel

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• To compare speeds of microprocessors, Intel
devised the iCOMP- rating index.
– composite of SPEC92, ZD Bench, Power Meter
• The iCOMP1 rating index is used to rate the
speed of all Intel microprocessors through the
Pentium.
• Figure 1–2 shows relative speeds of the
80386DX 25 MHz version through the
Pentium 233 MHz version.

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Figure 1–2 The Intel iCOMP-rating index.

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Barry B. Brey
• Since release of Pentium Pro and Pentium II,
Intel has switched to the iCOMP2- rating.
– scaled by a factor of 10 from the iCOMP1 index
• Figure 1–3 shows iCOMP2 index listing the
Pentium III at speeds up to 1000 MHz.
• Figure 1–4 shows SYSmark 2002 for the
Pentium III and Pentium 4.
• Intel has not released benchmarks that
compare versions of the microprocessor since
the SYSmark 2002.
– newer available do not compare versions
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Figure 1–3 The Intel iCOMP2-rating index.

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Figure 1–4 Intel microprocessor performance using SYSmark 2002.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Pentium Pro Processor
• A recent entry, formerly named the P6.
• 21 million transistors, integer units, floating-
point unit, clock frequency 150 and 166 MHz
• Internal 16K level-one (L1) cache.
– 8K data, 8K for instructions
– Pentium Pro contains 256K level-two (L2) cache
• Pentium Pro uses three execution engines, to
execute up to three instructions at a time.
– can conflict and still execute in parallel

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• Pentium Pro optimized to efficiently execute
32-bit code.
– often bundled with Windows NT rather than
normal versions of Windows 95
– Intel launched Pentium Pro for server market
• Pentium Pro can address 4G-byte or a 64G-
byte memory system.
– 36-bit address bus if configured for a 64G
memory system

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Pentium II and Pentium Xeon
Microprocessors
• Pentium II, released 1997, represents new
direction for Intel.
• Intel has placed Pentium II on a small circuit
board, instead of being an integrated circuit.
– L2 cache on main circuit board of not fast
enough to function properly with Pentium II
• Microprocessor on the Pentium II module
actually Pentium Pro with MMX extensions.

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• In 1998 Intel changed Pentium II bus speed.
– newer Pentium II uses a 100 MHz bus speed
• Higher speed memory bus requires 8 ns
SDRAM.
– replaces 10 ns SDRAM with 66 MHz bus speed

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• Intel announced Xeon in mid-1998.
– specifically designed for high-end workstation
and server applications
• Xeon available with 32K L1 cache and L2
cache size of 512K, 1M, or 2M bytes.
• Xeon functions with the 440GX chip set.
• Also designed to function with four Xeons in
the same system, similar to Pentium Pro.
• Newer product represents strategy change.
– Intel produces a professional and home/business
version of the Pentium II
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Pentium III Microprocessor
• Faster core than Pentium II; still a P6 or
Pentium Pro processor.
• Available in slot 1 version mounted on a
plastic cartridge.
• Also socket 370 version called a flip-chip
which looks like older Pentium package.
• Pentium III available with clock frequencies
up to 1 GHz.

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• Slot 1 version contains a 512K cache; flip-chip
version contains 256K cache.
• Flip-chip version runs at clock speed; Slot 1
cache version runs at one-half clock speed.
• Both versions use 100 MHz memory bus.
– Celeron memory bus clock speed 66 MHz
• Front side bus connection, microprocessor to
memory controller, PCI controller, and AGP
controller, now either 100 or 133 MHz.
– this change has improved performance
– memory still runs at 100 MHz
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Pentium 4 and Core2
Microprocessors
• Pentium 4 first made available in late 2000.
– most recent version of Pentium called Core2
– uses Intel P6 architecture
• Pentium 4 available to 3.2 GHz and faster.
– supporting chip sets use RAMBUS or DDR
memory in place of SDRAM technology
• Core2 is available at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
– improvement in internal integration, at present
the 0.045 micron or 45 nm technology
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• A likely change is a shift from aluminum to
copper interconnections inside the
microprocessor.
• Copper is a better conductor.
– should allow increased clock frequencies
– especially true now that a method for using
copper has surfaced at IBM
• Another event to look for is a change in the
speed of the front side bus.
– increase beyond current maximum 1033 MHz

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Pentium 4 and Core2, 64-bit and
Multiple Core Microprocessors
• Recent modifications to Pentium 4 and Core2
include a 64-bit core and multiple cores.
• 64-bit modification allows address of over 4G (10 9)
bytes of memory through a 64-bit address.
– 40 address pins in these newer versions allow
up to 1T (terabytes: 1000G) of memory to be accessed
• Also allows 64-bit integer arithmetic.
– less important than ability to address more memory

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• Biggest advancement is inclusion of multiple
cores.
– each core executes a separate task in a program
• Increases speed of execution if program is
written to take advantage of multiple cores.
– called multithreaded applications
• Intel manufactures dual and quad core
versions; number of cores will likely increase
to eight or even sixteen.

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• Multiple cores are current solution to providing
faster microprocessors.
• Intel recently demonstrated Core2 containing
80 cores, using 45 nm fabrication technology.
• Intel expects to release an 80-core version
some time in the next 5 years.
• Fabrication technology will become slightly
smaller with 35 nm and possibly 25 nm
technology.

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The Future of Microprocessors
• No one can make accurate predictions.
• Success of Intel should continue.
• Change to RISC technology may occur; more
likely improvements to new hyper-threading
technology.
– joint effort by Intel and Hewlett-Packard
• New technology embodies CISC instruction
set of 80X86 family.
– software for the system will survive

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• Basic premise is many microprocessors
communicate directly with each other.
– allows parallel processing without any change
to the instruction set or program
• Current superscaler technology uses many
microprocessors; all share same register set.
– new technology contains many microprocessors
– each contains its own register set linked with the
other microprocessors’ registers
• Offers true parallel processing without writing
any special program.
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• In 2002, Intel released a new architecture 64
bits in width with a 128-bit data bus.
• Named Itanium; joint venture called EPIC
(Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing) of
Intel and Hewlett-Packard.
• The Itanium architecture allows greater
parallelism than traditional architectures.
• 128 general-purpose integer and 128 floating-
point registers; 64 predicate registers.
• Many execution units to ensure enough
hardware resources for software.
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Figure 1–5a Conceptual views of the 80486, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III,
Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors.

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Figure 1–5b Conceptual views of the 80486, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III,
Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors.

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• Clock frequencies seemed to have peaked.
• Surge to multiple cores has begun.
• Memory speed a consideration.
– speed of dynamic RAM memory has not
changed for many years.
• Push to static RAM memory will eventually.
increase the performance of the PC.
– main problem with large static RAM is heat
– static RAM operates 50 times faster than dynamic
RAM

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• Speed of mass storage another problem.
– transfer speed of hard disk drives has changed
little in past few years
– new technology needed for mass storage
• Flash memory could be solution.
– write speed comparable to hard disk memory
• Flash memory could store the operating
system for common applications.
– would allow operating system to load in a second
or two instead of many seconds now required

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1–2 THE MICROPROCESSOR-
BASED PERSONAL COMPUTER
SYSTEM
• Computers have undergone many changes
recently.
• Machines that once filled large areas reduced
to small desktop computer systems because
of the microprocessor.
– although compact, they possess computing power
only dreamed of a few years ago

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• Figure 1–6 shows block diagram of the
personal computer.
• Applies to any computer system, from early
mainframe computers to the latest systems.
• Diagram composed of three blocks
interconnected by buses.
– a bus is the set of common connections
that carry the same type of information

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Figure 1–6 The block diagram of a microprocessor-based computer system.

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The Memory and I/O System
• Memory structure of all Intel-based personal
computers similar.
• Figure 1–7 illustrates memory map of a
personal computer system.
• This map applies to any IBM personal
computer.
– also any IBM-compatible clones in existence

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Figure 1–7 The memory map of a personal computer.

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• Main memory system divided into three parts:
– TPA (transient program area)
– system area
– XMS (extended memory system)
• Type of microprocessor present determines
whether an extended memory system exists.
• First 1M byte of memory often called the real
or conventional memory system.
– Intel microprocessors designed to function
in this area using real mode operation

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• 80286 through the Core2 contain the TPA
(640K bytes) and system area (384K bytes).
– also contain extended memory
– often called AT class machines
• The PS/l and PS/2 by IBM are other versions
of the same basic memory design.
• Also referred to as ISA (industry standard
architecture) or EISA (extended ISA).
• The PS/2 referred to as a micro-channel
architecture or ISA system.
– depending on the model number
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• Pentium and ATX class machines feature
addition of the PCI (peripheral component
interconnect) bus.
– now used in all Pentium through Core2 systems
• Extended memory up to 15M bytes in the
80286 and 80386SX; 4095M bytes in 80486
80386DX, Pentium microprocessors.
• The Pentium Pro through Core2 computer
systems have up to 1M less than 4G or 1 M
less than 64G of extended memory.
• Servers tend to use the larger memory map.
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• Many 80486 systems use VESA local, VL bus
to interface disk and video to the
microprocessor at the local bus level.
– allows 32-bit interfaces to function at same
clocking speed as the microprocessor
– recent modification supporting 64-bit data bus
has generated little interest
• ISA/EISA standards function at 8 MHz.
• PCI bus is a 32- or 64-bit bus.
– specifically designed to function with the Pentium
through Core2 at a bus speed of 33 MHz.

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• Three newer buses have appeared.
• USB (universal serial bus).
– intended to connect peripheral devices to the
microprocessor through a serial data path and
a twisted pair of wires
• Data transfer rates are 10 Mbps for USB1.
• Increase to 480 Mbps in USB2.
• Increase to 480X10 Mbps in USB3.

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• AGP (advanced graphics port) for video
cards.
• The port transfers data between video card
and microprocessor at higher speeds.
– 66 MHz, with 64-bit data path
• Latest AGP speed 8X or 2G bytes/second.
– video subsystem change made to accommodate
new DVD players for the PC.

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• Latest new buses are serial ATA interface
(SATA) for hard disk drives; PCI Express bus
for the video card.
• The SATA bus transfers data from PC to hard
disk at rates of 150M bytes per second; 300M
bytes for SATA-2.
– serial ATA standard will eventually reach speeds
of 450M bytes per second
• PCI Express bus video cards operate at 16X
speeds today.

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The TPA
• The transient program area (TPA) holds the
DOS (disk operating system) operating
system; other programs that control the
computer system.
– the TPA is a DOS concept and not really
applicable in Windows
– also stores any currently active or inactive DOS
application programs
– length of the TPA is 640K bytes

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Figure 1–8 The memory map of the TPA in a personal computer. (Note that this map
will vary between systems.)

• DOS memory map shows

how areas of TPA are used
for system programs, data
and drivers.
– also shows a large area of
memory available for
application programs
– hexadecimal number to left of
each area represents the
memory addresses that begin
and end each data area
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• Hexadecimal memory addresses number
each byte of the memory system.
– a hexadecimal number is a number represented
in radix 16 or base 16
– each digit represents a value from 0 to 9 and
from A to F
• Often a hexadecimal number ends with an
H to indicate it is a hexadecimal value.
– 1234H is 1234 hexadecimal
– also represent hexadecimal data as 0xl234 for
a 1234 hexadecimal

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• Interrupt vectors access DOS, BIOS (basic
I/O system), and applications.
• Areas contain transient data to access I/O
devices and internal features of the system.
– these are stored in the TPA so they can be
changed as DOS operates

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• The IO.SYS loads into the TPA from the disk
whenever an MSDOS system is started.
• IO.SYS contains programs that allow DOS to
use keyboard, video display, printer, and other
I/O devices often found in computers.
• The IO.SYS program links DOS to the
programs stored on the system BIOS ROM.

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• Drivers are programs that control installable
I/O devices.
– mouse, disk cache, hand scanner, CD-ROM
memory (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory),
DVD (Digital Versatile Disk; Digital Video Disk),
or installable devices, as well as programs
• Installable drivers control or drive devices or
programs added to the computer system.
• DOS drivers normally have an extension
of .SYS; MOUSE.SYS.
• DOS version 3.2 and later files have an
extension of .EXE; EMM386.EXE.
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• Though not used by Windows, still used to
execute DOS applications, even with Win XP.
• Windows uses a file called SYSTEM.INI to
load drivers used by Windows.
• Newer versions of Windows have a registry
added to contain information about the
system and the drivers used.
• You can view the registry with the REGEDIT
program.

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• COMMAND.COM (command processor)
controls operation of the computer from the
keyboard when operated in the DOS mode.
• COMMAND.COM processes DOS commands
as they are typed from the keyboard.
• If COMMAND.COM is erased, the computer
cannot be used from the keyboard in DOS
mode.
– never erase COMMAND.COM, IO.SYS, or
MSDOS.SYS to make room for other software
– your computer will not function

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The System Area
• Smaller than the TPA; just as important.
• The system area contains programs on read-
only (ROM) or flash memory, and areas of
read/write (RAM) memory for data storage.
• Figure 1–9 shows the system area of a typical
personal computer system.
• As with the map of the TPA, this map also
includes the hexadecimal memory addresses
of the various areas.

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Figure 1–9 The system area of a typical personal computer.

• First area of system space

contains video display RAM
and video control programs
on ROM or flash memory.
– area starts at location A0000H
and extends to C7FFFH
– size/amount of memory
depends on type of video
display adapter attached

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• Display adapters generally have video RAM
at A0000H–AFFFFH.
– stores graphical or bit-mapped data
• Memory at B0000H–BFFFFH stores text data.
• The video BIOS on a ROM or flash memory,
is at locations C0000H–C7FFFH.
– contains programs to control DOS video display
• C8000H–DFFFFH is often open or free.
– used for expanded memory system (EMS) in PC
or XT system; upper memory system in an AT

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• Expanded memory system allows a 64K-byte
page frame of memory for use by
applications.
– page frame (D0000H - DFFFFH) used to expand
memory system by switching in pages of memory
from EMS into this range of memory addresses
• Locations E0000H–EFFFFH contain cassette
BASIC on ROM found in early IBM systems.
– often open or free in newer computer systems
• Video system has its own BIOS ROM at
location C0000H.
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• System BIOS ROM is located in the top 64K
bytes of the system area (F0000H–FFFFFH).
– controls operation of basic I/O devices connected
to the computer system
– does not control operation of video
• The first part of the system BIOS (F0000H–
F7FFFH) often contains programs that set up
the computer.
• Second part contains procedures that control
the basic I/O system.

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Windows Systems
• Modern computers use a different memory
map with Windows than DOS memory maps.
• The Windows memory map in Figure 1–10
has two main areas; a TPA and system area.
• The difference between it and the DOS
memory map are sizes and locations of these
areas.

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Figure 1–10 The memory map used by Windows XP.

• TPA is first 2G bytes from

locations 00000000H to
7FFFFFFFH.
• Every Windows program
can use up to 2G bytes of
memory located at linear
addresses 00000000H
through 7FFFFFFFH.
• System area is last 2G
bytes from 80000000H
to FFFFFFFFH.
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• Memory system physical map is much
different.
• Every process in a Windows Vista, XP, or
2000 system has its own set of page tables.
• The process can be located anywhere in the
memory, even in noncontiguous pages.
• The operating system assigns physical
memory to application.
– if not enough exists, it uses the hard disk
for any that is not available

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I/O Space
• I/O devices allow the microprocessor to
communicate with the outside world.
• I/O (input/output) space in a computer system
extends from I/O port 0000H to port FFFFH.
– I/O port address is similar to a memory address
– instead of memory, it addresses an I/O device
• Figure 1–11 shows the I/O map found in many
personal computer systems.

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Figure 1–11 Some I/O locations in a typical personal computer.

• Access to most I/O

devices should always
be made through
Windows, DOS, or
BIOS function calls.
• The map shown is
provided as a guide to
illustrate the I/O space
in the system.

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• The area below I/O location 0400H is
considered reserved for system devices
• Area available for expansion extends from I/O
port 0400H through FFFFH.
• Generally, 0000H - 00FFH addresses main
board components; 0100H - 03FFH handles
devices located on plug-in cards or also on
the main board.
• The limitation of I/O addresses between 0000
and 03FFH comes from original standards
specified by IBM for the PC standard.
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The Microprocessor
• Called the CPU (central processing unit).
• The controlling element in a computer system.
• Controls memory and I/O through connections
called buses.
– buses select an I/O or memory device, transfer
data between I/O devices or memory and the
microprocessor, control I/O and memory systems
• Memory and I/O controlled via instructions
stored in memory, executed by the
microprocessor.
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• Microprocessor performs three main tasks:
– data transfer between itself and the memory or
I/O systems
– simple arithmetic and logic operations
– program flow via simple decisions
• Power of the microprocessor is capability to
execute billions of millions of instructions per
second from a program or software (group of
instructions) stored in the memory system.
– stored programs make the microprocessor and
computer system very powerful devices

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• Another powerful feature is the ability to make
simple decisions based upon numerical facts.
– a microprocessor can decide if a number is zero,
positive, and so forth
• These decisions allow the microprocessor to
modify the program flow, so programs appear
to think through these simple decisions.

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Buses
• A common group of wires that interconnect
components in a computer system.
• Transfer address, data, & control information
between microprocessor, memory and I/O.
• Three buses exist for this transfer of
information: address, data, and control.
• Figure 1–12 shows how these buses
interconnect various system components.

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Figure 1–12 The block diagram of a computer system showing the address, data,
and control bus structure.

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• The address bus requests a memory location
from the memory or an I/O location from the
I/O devices.
– if I/O is addressed, the address bus contains a
16-bit I/O address from 0000H through FFFFH.
– if memory is addressed, the bus contains a
memory address, varying in width by type of
microprocessor.
• 64-bit extensions to Pentium provide 40
address pins, allowing up to 1T (240 .=.1012)
byte of memory to be accessed.

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• The data bus transfers information between
the microprocessor and its memory and I/O
address space.
• Data transfers vary in size, from 8 bits wide to
64 bits wide in various Intel microprocessors.
– 8088 has an 8-bit data bus that transfers 8 bits
of data at a time
– 8086, 80286, 80386SL, 80386SX, and 80386EX
transfer 16 bits of data
– 80386DX, 80486SX, and 80486DX, 32 bits
– Pentium through Core2 microprocessors transfer
64 bits of data
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• Advantage of a wider data bus is speed in
applications using wide data.
• Figure 1–13 shows memory widths and sizes
of 8086 through Core2 microprocessors.
• In all Intel microprocessors family members,
memory is numbered by byte.
• Pentium through Core2 microprocessors
contain a 64-bit-wide data bus.

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Figure 1–13a The physical memory systems of the 8086 through the Core2
microprocessors.

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Figure 1–13b The physical memory systems of the 8086 through the Core2
microprocessors.

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• Control bus lines select and cause memory or
I/O to perform a read or write operation.
• In most computer systems, there are four
control bus connections:
• MRDC (memory read control)
• MWTC (memory write control)
• IORC (I/O read control)
• IOWC (I/O write control).
• overbar indicates the control signal is active-
low; (active when logic zero appears on
control line)
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• The microprocessor reads a memory location
by sending the memory an address through
the address bus.
• Next, it sends a memory read control signal to
cause the memory to read data.
• Data read from memory are passed to the
microprocessor through the data bus.
• Whenever a memory write, I/O write, or I/O
read occurs, the same sequence ensues.

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1–4 COMPUTER DATA FORMATS
• Successful programming requires a precise
understanding of data formats.
• Commonly, data appear as ASCII, Unicode,
BCD, signed and unsigned integers, and
floating-point numbers (real numbers).
• Other forms are available but are not
commonly found.

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ASCII and Unicode Data
• ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange) data represent
alphanumeric characters in computer memory.

• Standard ASCII code is a 7-bit code.

– eighth and most significant bit used to hold parity
• If used with a printer, most significant bits are
0 for alphanumeric printing; 1 for graphics.
• In PC, an extended ASCII character set is
selected by placing 1 in the leftmost bit.
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• Extended ASCII characters store:
– some foreign letters and punctuation
– Greek & mathematical characters
– box-drawing & other special characters
• Extended characters can vary from one
printer to another.
• ASCII control characters perform control
functions in a computer system.
– clear screen, backspace, line feed, etc.
• Enter control codes through the keyboard.
– hold the Control key while typing a letter
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• Many Windows-based applications use the
Unicode system to store alphanumeric data.
– stores each character as 16-bit data
• Codes 0000H–00FFH are the same as
standard ASCII code.
• Remaining codes, 0100H–FFFFH, store all
special characters from many character sets.
• Allows software for Windows to be used in
many countries around the world.
• For complete information on Unicode, visit:
http://www.unicode.org
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BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) Data
• The range of a BCD digit extends from 00002
to 10012, or 0–9 decimal, stored in two forms:
• Stored in packed form:
– packed BCD data stored as two digits per byte;
– used for BCD addition and subtraction in the
instruction set of the microprocessor
• Stored in unpacked form:
– unpacked BCD data stored as one digit per byte
– returned from a keypad or keyboard

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• Applications requiring BCD data are point-of-
sales terminals.
– also devices that perform a minimal amount of
simple arithmetic
• If a system requires complex arithmetic, BCD
data are seldom used.
– there is no simple and efficient method of
performing complex BCD arithmetic

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Byte-Sized Data
• Stored as unsigned and signed integers.
• Difference in these forms is the weight of the
leftmost bit position.
– value 128 for the unsigned integer
– minus 128 for the signed integer
• In signed integer format, the leftmost bit
represents the sign bit of the number.
– also a weight of minus 128

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Figure 1–14 The unsigned and signed bytes illustrating the weights of each binary-bit
position.

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• Unsigned integers range 00H to FFH (0–255)
• Signed integers from 128 to 0 to + 127.
• Negative signed numbers represented in this
way are stored in the two’s complement form.
• Evaluating a signed number by using weights
of each bit position is much easier than the
act of two’s complementing a number to find
its value.
– especially true in the world of calculators
designed for programmers

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Word-Sized Data
• A word (16-bits) is formed with two bytes of
data.
• The least significant byte always stored in the
lowest-numbered memory location.
• Most significant byte is stored in the highest.
• This method of storing a number is called the
little endian format.

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Figure 1–15 The storage format for a 16-bit word in (a) a register and (b) two bytes of
memory.

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Figure 1–16 The storage format for a 32-bit word in (a) a register and (b) 4 bytes of
memory.

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• Alternate method is called the big endian
format.
• Numbers are stored with the lowest location
containing the most significant data.
• Not used with Intel microprocessors.
• The big endian format is used with the
Motorola family of microprocessors.

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Doubleword-Sized Data
• Doubleword-sized data requires four bytes
of memory because it is a 32-bit number.
– appears as a product after a multiplication
– also as a dividend before a division
• Define using the assembler directive define
doubleword(s), or DD.
– also use the DWORD directive in place of DD

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Real Numbers
• Since many high-level languages use Intel
microprocessors, real numbers are often
encountered.
• A real, or a floating-point number contains
two parts:
– a mantissa, significand, or fraction
– an exponent.
• A 4-byte number is called single-precision.
• The 8-byte form is called double-precision.

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Figure 1–17 The floating-point numbers in (a) single-precision using a bias of 7FH
and (b) double-precision using a bias of 3FFH.

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• The assembler can be used to define real
numbers in single- & double-precision forms:
– use the DD directive for single-precision 32-bit
numbers
– use define quadword(s), or DQ to define 64-bit
double-precision real numbers
• Optional directives ( 導引 ) are REAL4,
REAL8, and REAL10.
– for defining single-, double-, and extended
precision real numbers

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SUMMARY (cont.)
• The world's first microprocessor, the Intel
4004, was a 4-bit microprocessor-a
programmable controller on a chip-that was
meager by today's standards.
• It addressed a mere 4096 4-bit memory
locations.
• Its instruction set contained only 45
different instructions.

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SUMMARY (cont.)
• Microprocessors that are common today
include the 8086/8088, which were the first
16-bit microprocessors.
• Following these early 16-bit machines were
the 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium,
Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III,
Pentium 4, and Core2 processors.
• The architecture has changed from 16 bits
to 32 bits and, with the Itanium, to 64 bits.

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SUMMARY (cont.)
• With each newer version, improvements
followed that increased the processor's
speed and performance.
• From all indications, this process of speed
and performance improvement will
continue.
• Performance increases may not always
come from an increased clock frequency.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• DOS-based personal computers contain
memory systems that include three main
areas: TPA (transient program area),
system area, and extended memory.
• The TPA hold: application programs, the
operating system, and drivers.
• The system area contains memory used for
video display cards, disk drives, and the
BIOS ROM.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• The extended memory area is only
available to the 80286 through the Core2
microprocessor in an AT-style or ATX-style
personal computer system.
• The Windows-based personal computers
contain memory systems that include two
main areas: TPA and systems area.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• The 8086/8088 address 1M byte of memory
from locations 00000H-FFFFFH.
• The 80286 and 80386SX address 16M
bytes of memory from 000000H-FFFFFFH.
• The 80386SL addresses 32M bytes of
memory from 0000000H-1FFFFFFH.
• The 80386DX through the Core2 address
4G bytes of memory from locations
00000000H-FFFFFFFFH.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• Pentium Pro through the Core2 can operate
with a 36-bit address and access up to 64G
bytes of memory from locations
000000000H-FFFFFFFFFH.
• A Pentium 4 or Core2 operating with 64-bit
extensions addresses memory from
locations 0000000000H- FFFFFFFFFFH for
1T byte of memory.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• All versions of the 8086 through the Core2
microprocessors address 64K bytes of I/O
address space.
• These I/O ports are numbered from 0000H
to FFFFH with I/O ports 0000H-03FFH
reserved for use by the personal computer
system.
• The PCI bus allows ports 0400H-FFFFH.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• The operating system in early personal
computers was either MSDOS (Microsoft
disk operating system) or PCDOS
(personal computer disk operating system
from IBM).
• The operating system performs the task of
operating or controlling the computer
system, along with its I/O devices.
• Modern computers use Microsoft Windows
in place of DOS as an operating system.
The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,
Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• The microprocessor is the controlling
element in a computer system.
• The micro-processor performs data
transfers, does simple arithmetic and logic
operations, and makes simple decisions.
• The microprocessor executes programs
stored in the memory system to perform
complex operations in short periods of time.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• All computer systems contain three buses
to control memory and I/O.
• The address bus is used to request a
memory location or I/O device.
• The data bus transfers data between the
microprocessor and its memory and I/O
spaces.
• The control bus controls the memory and
I/O, and requests reading or writing of data.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• The ASCII code is a 7-bit code; it can have
an eighth bit that is used to extend the
character set from 128 codes to 256 codes.
• The carriage return (Enter) code returns the
print head or cursor to the left margin.
• The line feed code moves the cursor or
print head down one line.
• Most modern applications use Unicode,
which contains ASCII at codes 0000H-
00FFH.
The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,
Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• Binary-coded decimal (BCD) data are
sometimes used in a computer system to
store decimal data.
• These data are stored either in packed (two
digits per byte) or unpacked (one digit per
byte) form.
• Binary data are stored as a byte (8 bits),
word (16 bits), or doubleword (32 bits) in a
computer system.
• These data may be unsigned or signed.
The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,
Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY (cont.)
• Signed negative data are always stored in
the two's complement form.
• Data that are wider than 8 bits are always
stored using the little endian format.
• In 32-bit Visual C++ these data are
represented with char (8 bits), short (16
bits) and int (32 bits).

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
SUMMARY
• Floating-point data are used in computer
systems to store whole, mixed, and frac-
tional numbers.
• A floating-point number is composed of a
sign, a mantissa, and an exponent.
• The assembler directives DB or BYTE
define bytes, DW or WORD define words,
DD or DWORD define doublewords, and
DQ or QWORD define quadwords.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey