PROBLEM SOLVING

CRITICAL THINKING
&
DECISION MAKING
PROBLEM SOLVING
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• Problem solving consists of using generic or ad hoc methods,
in an orderly manner, for finding solutions to problems.

• The term problem solving is used in many disciplines,

sometimes with different perspectives, and often with
different terminologies. For instance, it is a mental process in
psychology and a computerized process in computer science.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Problems can also be classified into two different types
• ILL-DEFINED problems are those that do not have clear goals,
solution paths, or expected solution.
• WELL-DEFINED problems have specific goals, clearly defined
solution paths, and clear expected solutions. These problems
also allow for more initial planning than ill-defined problems.
Being able to solve problems sometimes involves dealing with
pragmatics (logic) and semantics (interpretation of the problem).
Sometimes the problem requires some abstract thinking and
coming up with a creative solution.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• Problem solving refers to a state of desire for reaching
a definite 'goal' from a present condition that either is
not directly moving toward the goal, is far from it, or
needs more complex logic for finding a missing
description of conditions or steps toward the goal.
• It is the evolutionary drive for living organisms. The
nature of human problem solving processes and
methods has been studied by psychologists over the
past hundred years.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Methods of studying problem solving include
• Introspection (Self-examination, Self-analysis)
• Behaviourism
• Simulation (Imitation, Replication)
• Computer modelling
• Experiment

Social psychologists also look into the independent and

interdependent problem-solving methods.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
STRATEGIES
Steps used to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting
one's own goal. (Bransford & Stein, 1993) refer to this as the
'problem-solving cycle'. In this cycle one will
 Recognize the problem
 Define the problem
 Develop a strategy to fix the problem
 Organize the knowledge of the problem cycle
 Figure out the resources at the user's disposal
 Monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for
accuracy.
The reason it is called a cycle is that once one is completed with a
problem another usually will pop up.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Blanchard-Fields (2007) looks at problem solving from one of
two facets.
• The first, looking at those problems that only have one
solution (like mathematical problems, or fact-based
questions) which are grounded in psychometric intelligence.
• The second is socioemotional in nature and are unpredictable
with answers that are constantly changing (like what's your
favourite colour or what you should get someone for
Birthday).
 PROBLEM SOLVING- TECHNIQUES
Usually called problem-solving strategies:
• Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system
before applying it to the real system
• Analogy: using a solution that solves an analogous problem
• Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people)
suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining
and developing them until an optimum solution is found
• Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem
into smaller, solvable problems
 PROBLEM SOLVING- TECHNIQUES
• Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the
problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the
assumption
• Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
• Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move
closer to the goal
• Method of focal objects: synthesizing seemingly non-matching
characteristics of different objects into something new
• Morphological analysis: assessing the output and interactions of
an entire system
 PROBLEM SOLVING- TECHNIQUES
• Proof: try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The
point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving
it
• Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem
for which solutions exist
• Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing
solutions to similar problems
• Root cause analysis: identifying the cause of a problem
• Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is
found
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Stage One: Identifying the Problem
• Identify the existence of problem. Problems will have an impact for some
time before they are recognised.
• Once a problem has been identified, its exact nature needs to be
determined: what are the goal and barrier components of the problem?
Some of the main elements of the problem can be outlined, and a first
attempt at defining the problem should be made. This definition should be
clear enough to easily explain the nature of the problem to others.

GOAL (I want to...) BARRIER (but…)

Tell a friend that we find something they

I don't want to hurt their feelings.
do irritating.

I'm not sure which model to get or how much money is

Buy a new computer.
reasonable to spend.

Set up a new business. I don't know where to start.

 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Stage Two: Structuring the Problem
• It involves gaining a deeper understanding of the problem. Firstly,
facts need to be checked.
Problem Checking Facts

“I want to take a job, but I don’t have the “Do I really want a job?”
transport to get there and I don’t have enough “Do I really have no access to transport?”
money to buy a car.” “Can I really not afford to buy a car?”

• The questions have to be asked, is the stated goal the real goal? Are
the barriers actual barriers and what other barriers are there? In this
example, the problem at first seems to be:

Goal Barrier 1 Barrier 2

Take the job No transport No money

 REPRESENTATION OF PROBLEMS lly
Chain Diagrams
• Chain diagrams are powerful and simple ways of representing
problems using a combination of diagrams and words.
Flow Charts
• Flow charts allow for inclusion of branches, folds, loops, decision
points and many other relationships between the elements.
Tree Diagrams
• Tree diagrams and Decision Tree, are ways of representing situations
where there are a number of choices or different possible events to be
considered. These are particularly useful for considering all the
possible consequences of solutions.
Listing
• Listing the elements of a problem can also help to represent priorities,
order and sequences in the problem. Goals can be listed in order of
importance and barriers in order of difficulty.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Stage Three: Possible Solutions
Brainstorming
• Brainstorming is most commonly used technique for generating a large
number of ideas in a short period of time. Whilst it can be done
individually, it is more often practised in groups.
• Before a brainstorming session begins, the leader or facilitator
encourages everyone to contribute as many ideas as possible, no
matter how irrelevant or absurd they may seem.
• There should be lots of large sheets of paper, Post-It notes and/or flip
charts available, so that any ideas generated can be written down in
such a way that everyone present can see them.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
• Warming-up exercises encourage participants to get in the right
frame of mind for creative thinking. The exercises should be fun
and exciting, with the facilitator encouraging everyone to think
up wild and creative ideas in rapid succession. Possible topics
could be: 'What would you wish to have with you if you were
stranded on a desert island?' or 'Design a better mousetrap!'
• It is better if the warm-up problems are somewhat absurd as
this will encourage the uncritical, free-flowing creativity needed
to confront the later, real problem. Remember, the aim is to
develop an uncritical, creative momentum in the group.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Divergent Thinking: (Different)

• It is the process of recalling possible solutions from past

experience, or inventing new ones. Thoughts spread out or

'diverge' along a number of paths to a range of possible

solutions. It is the process from which many of the following

creative problem solving techniques have been designed.

Convergent thinking: (of thought, well-established patterns)

• Convergent thinking is the subsequent process of narrowing

down the possibilities to 'converge' on the most appropriate form

of action.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Stage Four: Making a Decision
• Once a number of possible solutions have been arrived at, they
should be taken forward through the decision making process.
• Decision Making is a an important skill in itself. For example,
information on each suggestion needs to be sought, the risks
assessed, each option evaluated through a pros and cons analysis
and, finally, a decision made on the best possible option.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Stage Five: Implementation
Implementation Involves:
 Being committed to a solution.
 Accepting responsibility for the decision.
 Identifying who will implement the solution.
 Resolving to carry out the chosen solution.
 Exploring the best possible means of
implementing the solution.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES
Stage Six: Feedback
• The only way for an individual or group to improve their problem
solving, is to look at how they have solved problems in the past. To
do this, feedback is needed and, therefore, it is important to keep a
record of problem solving, the solutions arrived at and the
outcomes. Ways of obtaining feedback include:
 Monitoring
 Questionnaires
 Follow-up phone calls
 Asking others who may have been affected by your decisions.

It is important to encourage people to be honest when seeking

feedback, regardless whether it is positive or negative.
 PROBLEM SOLVING- STAGES

1. Define Problem
2. Analyze Problem
3. Identify Solutions
4. Choose Solution
5. Implement
6. Feedback
CRITICAL THINKING
 CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking— about any subject,
content, or problem— in which the thinker improves the quality
of his or her thinking by skilfully analysing, assessing, and
reconstructing it.

Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored,

and self-corrective thinking. It entails effective communication
and problem-solving abilities, as well as a commitment to
overcome our native ego-centrism and socio-centrism.
 ETYMOLOGY OF "CRITICAL THINKING"
• The concept of critical thinking - Roots in ancient Greek:
"kriticos" (meaning discerning judgment) and "kriterion"
(meaning standards). Etymologically, then, the word implies the
development of "discerning judgment based on standards.“

• In Webster’s New World Dictionary, the relevant entry reads

"characterized by careful analysis and judgment" and is followed
by the gloss, "critical — in its strictest sense —implies an attempt
at objective judgment so as to determine both merits and faults."
Applied to thinking, then, we might provisionally define critical
thinking as thinking that explicitly aims at well-founded judgment
and hence utilizes appropriate evaluative standards in the
attempt to determine the true worth, merit, or value of something.
 CRITICAL THINKING
• Our basic concept of critical thinking is, at root, simple. We could
define it as the art of taking charge of your own mind.
• Its value is also at root simple: if we can take charge of our own
minds, we can take charge of our lives; we can improve them,
bringing them under our self command and direction.
• Of course, this requires that we learn self-discipline and the art of
self-examination. This involves becoming interested in how our
minds work, how we can monitor, fine tune, and modify their
operations for the better.
• It involves getting into the habit of reflectively examining our
impulsive and accustomed ways of thinking and acting in every
dimension of our lives.
 CRITICAL THINKING
• All that we do, we do on the basis of some motivations or reasons.
But we rarely examine our motivations to see if they make sense.
We rarely scrutinize our reasons critically to see if they are
rationally justified.
• As consumers we sometimes buy things impulsively and
uncritically, without stopping to determine whether we really need
what we are inclined to buy or whether we can afford it or whether
it’s good for our health or whether the price is competitive.
• As parents we often respond to our children impulsively and
uncritically, without stopping to determine whether our actions are
consistent with how we want to act as parents or whether we are
contributing to their self esteem or whether we are discouraging
them from thinking or from taking responsibility for their own
behaviour.
 CRITICAL THINKING
• As citizens, too often we vote impulsively and uncritically,
without taking the time to familiarize ourselves with the
relevant issues and positions, without thinking about the
long-run implications of what is being proposed, without
paying attention to how politicians manipulate us by
flattery or vague and empty promises.

• As friends, too often we become the victims of our own

infantile needs, "getting involved" with people who bring
out the worst in us or who stimulate us to act in ways
that we have been trying to change.
 CRITICAL THINKING
• As patients, too often we allow ourselves to become
passive and uncritical in our health care, not establishing
good habits of eating and exercise, not questioning what
our doctor says, not designing or following good plans
for our own wellness.
 CRITICAL THINKING
• Critical thinking is that mode of thinking — about any
subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker
improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully
analyzing, assessing, and reconstructing it. Critical
thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored,
and self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to
rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command
of their use. It entails effective communication and
problem-solving abilities, as well as a commitment to
overcome our native egocentrism and socio-centrism.
 CRITICAL THINKING
To Analyze Thinking
• Identify its purpose, and question at issue, as well as its information, inferences(s),
assumptions, implications, main concept(s), and point of view.
To Assess Thinking
• Check it for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, significance, logic, and
fairness.
The Result
• A well-cultivated critical thinker:
 Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
 Gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it
effectively
 Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant
criteria and standards
 Thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and
assessing, as needs be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences
 Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems
DECISION MAKING
 DECISION MAKING
• People often say that they find it hard to make decisions. We
all have to make decisions all the time, ranging from trivial
issues like what to have for lunch, right up to life-changing
decisions like where and what to study, and who to marry.
• Some people put off making decisions by endlessly searching
for more information or getting other people to offer their
recommendations.
• Others resort to decision-making by taking a vote, sticking a
pin in a list or tossing a coin.
 DECISION MAKING
What is Decision Making?
• In its simplest sense, decision-making is the act of choosing
between two or more courses of action.
• In the wider process of problem-solving, decision-making
involves choosing between possible solutions to a problem.
Decisions can be made through either
an intuitive or reasoned process, or a combination of the
two.
 DECISION MAKING
Intuition
• Intuition is using your ‘gut feeling’ about possible courses of
action.
• Although people talk about it as if it was a magical ‘sense’,
intuition is actually a combination of past experience and your
personal values. It reflects your learning about life. It is,
however, not always based on reality, only your perceptions,
many of which may have started in childhood and may not be
very mature as a result.
• It is therefore worth examining your gut feeling closely,
especially if you have a very strong feeling against a particular
course of action, to see if you can work out why, and whether
the feeling is justified.
 DECISION MAKING
Reasoning
• Reasoning is using the facts and figures in front of you to make
decisions.
• Reasoning has its roots in the here-and-now, and in facts. It can,
however, ignore emotional aspects to the decision, and in
particular, issues from the past that may affect the way that the
decision is implemented.
• Intuition is a perfectly acceptable means of making a decision,
although it is generally more appropriate when the decision is of a
simple nature or needs to be made quickly.
• More complicated decisions tend to require a more formal,
structured approach, usually involving both intuition and
reasoning. It is important to be wary of impulsive reactions to a
situation.
 DECISION MAKING
Applying Both Reason and Intuition
• One way to do this is to apply the two aspects in turn. It’s
useful to start with reason, and gather facts and figures.
Once you have an obvious ‘decision’, it’s the turn of
intuition. How do you feel about the ‘answer’? Does it
feel right?
• If not, have another look, and see if you can work out
why not. If you’re not emotionally committed to the
decision you’ve made, you won’t implement it well or
effectively.
 DECISION MAKING
Problems that can prevent effective decision-making include:
1. Not Enough Information
2. Too Much Information
3. Too Many People
4. Vested Interests
5. Emotional Attachments
6. No Emotional Attachment
Many of these issues can be overcome by using a structured decision-
making process. This will help to:

 Reduce more complicated decisions down to simpler steps;

 See how any decisions are arrived at; and
 Plan decision making to meet deadlines.
 DECISION MAKING
1. Listing Possible Solutions/Options
• To come up with a list of all the possible solutions and/or
options available it is usually appropriate to use a group (or
individual) problem-solving process. This process could
include brainstorming or some other 'idea-generating'
process. It is important as a decision will be made from a
selection of fixed choices.
 DECISION MAKING
2. Setting Time Scale and Deciding who is Responsible
 How much time is available to spend on this decision?
 Is there a deadline for making a decision and what are the
consequences of missing this deadline?
 Is there an advantage in making a quick decision?
 How important is it to make a decision? How important is
it that the decision is right?
 Will spending more time improve the quality of the
decision?
 DECISION MAKING
3. Information Gathering
• Relevant information needs to be gathered. Inadequate or out-dated
information is more likely have wrong decision. If there is a lot of
irrelevant information, the decision will be difficult to make, and it will be
easier to become distracted by unnecessary factors.
• Up-to-date, accurate information to make decisions.

4. Weighing up the Risks Involved

How much risk should be taken in making the decision? Generally, the
amount of risk an individual is willing to take depends on:

 Seriousness of the consequences of taking the wrong decision.

 Benefits of making the right decision.
• Consider risk of the worst possible outcome and to decide if the risk is
acceptable. The choice can be between going ‘all out for success’ or
taking a safe decision.
 DECISION MAKING
5. Deciding on Values
• Everybody has their own unique set of values: decisions that
you make will, ultimately, be based on your values. That
means that the decision that is right for you may not be right
for someone else.
• If the responsibility for a decision is shared, it is therefore
possible that one person might not have the same values as
the others.
• In such cases, it is important to obtain a consensus as to
which values are to be given the most weight. It is important
that the values on which a decision is made are understood
because they will have a strong influence on the final choice.
 DECISION MAKING
6. Weighing up the Pros and Cons
• It is possible to compare different solutions and options by
considering the possible advantages and disadvantages of each.

7. Making the Decision

• Information-gathering will provide sufficient data on which to base a
decision, also to know the advantages and disadvantages of each
option.

• After arriving to this stage, one still feel uncomfortable. If that is the
case, don’t be afraid to revisit the process. You may not have listed
all the pros and cons, or you may have placed an unsuitable
weighting on one factor.

• Your intuition or ‘gut feeling’ is a strong indicator of whether the

decision is right for you and fits with your values.
 DECISION MAKING
Having Made the Decision...
• Finally, and perhaps most importantly, once you have
made a decision, don’t waste your time thinking about
‘what ifs’. If something does go wrong, and you need to
revisit the decision, then do. But otherwise, accept the
decision and move on.
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES

• Decision making style of managers depend greatly on

their personality and approach towards problem
solving. Every leader or manager has his own
individualistic style augmented by his experience,
background, and abilities.
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
Managers who follow this style assess few
alternatives and consider limited information
while taking any decision.
Directive or Autocratic They do not find it important to consult with
Decision Making others or seek information in any form and use
their logic and idea while taking decisions.

Managers using analytic decision making style

would like to have more information and consider
more alternatives before coming to a conclusion.
They seek relevant information from their sources
and consider factual and detailed information
Analytical Decision before taking any decision. Such managers are
Making careful decision makers as they have the ability to
adapt or cope with unique situations.
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
Leaders who follow this model believe in participative
management and consider the achievement of
subordinates and always take suggestions from them.
They try to get inputs from subordinates through
Behavioral Decision meetings and discussions. They try to avoid/resolve
Making conflicts as acceptance by others is important to them.

Managers using conceptual decision making style are

intuitive in their thinking and have high tolerance for
ambiguity.
Conceptual Decision They look at many alternatives and focus on long run
Making outcomes.
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
The 7 Styles of Decision Making
• Jeffrey Shinabarger Through his work with Plywood People, has
coined seven decision-making styles after working with hundreds of
people in "moments of tension or transition," and helping them
process how to make difficult decisions.
• “Understanding how you make decisions is the starting point to
making a more informed decision in the future. Your unique
decision-making style speaks to your strengths and also speaks to
your greatest weakness," he says. "The hope is to surround yourself
with others that make decisions in different styles to make a more
informed and thoughtful choice for moments of tension or transition.
When we understand our styles better, we are given the opportunity
to invite others from other unique perspectives into our process.”
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
1. Collective reasoning
• People with this style naturally gather a group of opinions before
making any decision. Group consensus and buy-in from everyone
guides each step forward.

• “These individuals believe deeply in democracy," Shinabarger says.

"They would love to vote for every decision."
2. Data driven
• Hard data, especially numbers, are the basis of these individual's
decisions. They take time to research, organize and consider before
moving forward.

• “The more information they gather, the better," Shinabarger

says. "Numbers, research and reason guide what they do and how
they decide."
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
3. Gut reaction
• These decision-makers rely on feelings to make quick decisions.
They don't mind taking risks and move confidently forward through
life.

• “Decisions by these individuals are highly emotional and are

instinctively known in a matter of moments," Shinabarger
says. "They are guided by that moment and are often challenging to
predict by others.”
4. List approach
• People with this approach only move forward after methodically
considering the pros and cons of any decision. Their researched
lists give them confidence and a pre-planned path for the future.
“Every decision will start with a piece of paper and a line drawn from
top to bottom creating a pro and con list," Shinabarger says. "They
can see things from every angle and won’t choose until they have
considered every option.”
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
5. Spiritually guided
• Staying close to God or spiritual beliefs and listening carefully
for a clear voice of direction is the process employed by these
individuals. Prayer, solitude and retreat are their key methods
of deciding.

• “Before any major decision is made, they will take an

extended period of time away from all others to stop and
meditate or pray about how to move forward," Shinabarger
says. "Until they have a peaceful resolve they will not
continue."
 DECISION MAKING-STYLES
6. Story living
• These individuals make decisions based on the story they will
get to tell afterwards. They want to go to new places, try
impossible things and tell the world.
• “A great vacation would be to climb Mount Kilimanjaro today
with three friends you met on Twitter yesterday," Shinabarger
says. "They are the type of people that can keep a bonfire
conversation going all night long.“
7. Passive undecided
• People with this mentality are happy to move forward with
almost any decision as long as they do not have to make it.
They avoid conflict and choose by following others.

• “They are genuinely OK with any other person in their life

making decisions on behalf of them," Shinabarger says. "In
every situation, choices by others will always be the best
decision.”
Another classification includes the following:
 Analytical (Logical, Systematic)
 Conceptual (Theoretical, Abstract)
 Impulsive (Spontaneous, Thoughtless)
 Procrastinating (Delaying, Postponing)
 Flexible (Supple, Stretchable)
 Proactive (Practical, Positive)
 Fatalistic (Defeatist, Philosophical )
 Dependant
 Normative
 Behavioural (Social, Interactive)