UNIT 3 Coordinate system and Transformation

Why care about the shape of the earth?

 If we want to have a mathematical representation of a point (point’s
coordinate) we need to have a reference surface we can refer to.
 Knowing the shape of the Earth we can define this surface.
 The gravity field gives the best representation (physical model) of the
shape of the Earth.
 However, the earth has an irregular shape; it affects how we best map
the surface of the Earth.
 This is because the physical surface of the earth contains variety of
irregular landforms, such as plains, valley, water, and mountains.
 Due to these variations, there are two main reference surfaces to
approximate the shape of the Earth.
 These are the Ellipsoid, and the Geoid.
 Earth Shape Models
 Flat earths models are still used for plane surveying, over distances
short enough so that earth curvature is insignificant (less than 10 km).
 Spherical earth models represent the shape of the earth with a sphere
of a specified radius. Spherical earth models are often used for short
range navigation and for global distance approximations. Spherical
models fail to model the actual shape of the earth.
 Ellipsoidal earth models are required for accurate range and bearing
calculations over long distances. Ellipsoidal models define an
ellipsoid with an equatorial radius and a polar radius. The best of
these models can represent the shape of the earth over the smoothed,
averaged sea-surface to within about one-hundred meters.
 Although the earth is an ellipsoid, its major and minor axes do not
vary greatly. The shape is so close to a sphere that it is often called a
spheroid rather than an ellipsoid
 3.1 Geoid, Ellipsoid and Datum (WGS 84 & Adindan)
Geoid
 The true shape of the Earth varies slightly from the mathematically smooth surface
 Differences in the density of the Earth cause variation in the strength of the
gravitational pull, in turn causing regions to bulge above or below a reference
ellipsoid.
 This undulating shape is called a geoid (a representation of the earth's gravity
field)
 The Geoid is the equipotential surface of the earth's gravity field which best fits, in
a least squares sense, global mean sea level (MSL) used for measuring heights.
 The starting point for measuring these heights is MSL points established at coastal
places represent the Geoid.
 GPS satellites, measure heights relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid
 Modern GPS receivers facilitate to implement geoid models inside (e.g. Earth
gravitational model 96, EGM-96).
 These geoid models include the height differences of the geoid with respect to
WGS84 ellipsoid.
 Then the user is able to correct the heights above WGS ellipsoid to the heights
above geoid.
 Reference Ellipsoid

 Geodesists: often use the ellipsoid that best fits the geoid.
 Points on/ near earth surface given by geodetic latitude, longitude and
height above ellipsoid.
 Since both topographic surface and geoid are irregular in shape, and
complex in mathematically, they are unsuitable for exact mathematical
computations.
 The simplest approximation for the shape of the Earth is a sphere with a
radius of 6371 km.
 The next approximation is a flattened sphere, conveniently modeled by
an oblate ellipsoid.
 This has an equatorial bulge with the polar radius, b, that is 22 km
shorter than the Equatorial radius, a.
 An ellipse is a simple, well defined geometrical shape, specified
completely by a simple formula involving just these two parameters
{a,b}.
 The reference ellipsoid used to characterize the shape of the earth is
 Cont.….

f=

e= =

 Flattening (f) indicates how much the ellipsoid departs from spherical shape.

 Eccentricity (e) measures how much an ellipse deviates from a true circle
 Cont.….
 Topography - the physical
surface of the earth
 Geoid or mean sea level - the
level (equipotential) surface at
mean sea level. (a level
surface is a surface on which
water will stand still).
 The Geoid is a level surface at
elevation zero.
 Ellipsoid - the mathematical
surface which approximates
the shape and size of the earth
 Cont.….
 Different ellipsoid models of the earth are employed for different
regions and purposes.
 The table below lists some common reference system (ellipsoids)
Ellipsoid Name Semimajor Axis (m) Semiminor Axis (m) Inverse Flattening
WGS 1984 6,378,137 6,356,752.3142 298.257223563
GRS 1980 6,378,137 6,356,752.3141 298.257222101
International 1924 6,378,388 6,356,911.946 297
Clarke 1866 6,378,206.4 6,356,583.8 294.978698214
Clarke 1880 6,378,249.145 6,356,514.87 293.465
Airy 1830 6,377,563.396 6,356,256.909 299.3249646
Bessel 1841 6,377,397.155 6,356,078.963 299.1528128
Australian National (1966) 6,378,160 6,356,774.719 298.25
Krasovsky 1940 6,378,245 6,356,863.019 298.3

Note that: - For Ethiopia Clarke 1880 ellipsoidal used for UTM zone- Adindan 37 reference
system with a semi-major axis of a= 6378249.145 m and inverse of flatting 1/f= 293.465
 Why use different Ellipsoids?
 The earth's surface is not perfectly symmetrical,
 So the semi-major and semi-minor axes that fit one geographical
region do not necessarily fit another
 Satellite technology has revealed several elliptical deviations.
 The earth's ellipsoid deviates slightly for different regions of the earth.
 Ignoring deviations and using the same ellipsoid for all locations on
the earth could lead to errors of several meters, or in extreme cases
hundreds of meters, in measurements on a regional scale.
 Datum

 Datum provides a frame of reference for measuring locations on

the surface of the earth
 It defines the origin and orientation of latitude and longitude
lines.
 A geodetic datum is a set of constants specifying the coordinate
system used for geodetic control, i.e. for calculating coordinates
of points on the earth.
 These constants include parameters to specify the location of the
origin of the coordinate system, the orientation of the coordinate
systems and the reference ellipsoid.
 There are hundreds of locally developed reference datums around
the world.
 The most widely used datum is WGS 1984. It serves as the
framework for worldwide positional measurements.
 Global datum

 A global datum is the reference ellipsoid and its center coincides with
the center of the earth.
 Satellite data has provided geodesists with new measurements to
define the best earth-fitting spheroid, which relates coordinates to the
earth's center of mass.
 The global datums use the earth's center of mass as its origin.
 The axes are oriented in such a way that
 Z-axis directed to the mean rotation axis of the earth,
 X-axis towards the intersection of Greenwich meridian and equator from
the origin
 Y-axis obeys the right hand rule with respective Z- and X-axis.
 There are two types of Global datums.
 International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)
 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
 Cont.….

International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)

 ITRF is the most precise earth-
World Geodetic System 1984

 The origin of WGS84 is located at the Earth

centered-earth-fixed datum center with an uncertainty of 1 to 2 meters
maintained by the international  The WGS84 is a geocentric reference
earth rotation and reference system
systems service  WGS 84 was established by the Department
of Defense of the USA (National Imagery
 An extensive global network of
and Mapping Agency)
accurate coordinate points derived  WGS84 is realized by adopting the
from geodetic observations using coordinates of stations around the world
integrated GPS Satellites has surveyed by Doppler satellite surveying
realized it. technique.
 ITRF is based on the GRS80 (a  GIS uses WGS84 as a reference coordinate
geocentric ellipsoid), designed to system.
approximate the geoid on a global  Satellite-based positioning equipment such
scale. as GPS helps to determine heights with an
accuracy of a few centimeters w.r.t a
reference WGS84.
 Local datum
 A local geodetic datum is realized by best fitting the size, shape and
location of the reference ellipsoid to the local region.
 local datum aligns its ellipsoid to fit closely the Earth’s surface of a
particular area.
 Its origin offsets from the center mass of the earth to match the
ellipsoid of local interest.
 There are many local reference datums in the world.
 Ethiopia uses local datum Adindan in which its reference ellipsoid is
Clark 1880.
 For example, Ethiopia uses local datum known as Adindan, in which
the reference ellipsoid or spheroid is Clark 1880. It is non-geocentric
datum with shift of the origin Δx = 165, Δy =11 and ΔZ= - 206. This
datum is located in Southern Egypt and used by six African countries.
 Note: An ellipsoid is not a datum. Many countries have used the same
ellipsoid but they are on different datum as they have different points
 Cont.….

Note that: - a different datum locates the same point in different places
For example, the OSGB36 (Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936), a local reference system for
the UK, locates the same coordinates 150m north of the same coordinates using WGS84 the
system used by GPS.
 Cont.….
Horizontal Earth Datum Vertical Earth Datum
 A geodetic (horizontal) datum has an  A vertical datum is a surface of
earth-fixed reference ellipsoid that may
have been fit, in some manner, to the zero elevation.
surface of the earth in the area of  Elevations are measured (Positive
interest. upward) from the vertical datum.
 Geodetic datum's have parameters that  Ideally, a vertical datum would
define the size and shape of the
closely approximate the geoid.
ellipsoid.
 It is impossible to access the geoid
 An earth datum is defined by an ellipse
and an axis of rotation surface directly.
 NAD27 (North American Datum of  Tide gauge measurements averaged
1927) uses the Clarke (1866) ellipsoid over many years used to establish
on a non-geocentric axis of rotation the local MSL
 NAD83 (NAD,1983) uses the GRS80  NAVD88 (North American Vertical
ellipsoid on a geocentric axis of rotation
Datum of 1988) takes into account
 WGS84 (World Geodetic System of
1984) uses GRS80, almost the same as a map of gravity anomalies
NAD83 between the ellipsoid and the geoid
 Coordinate system
What does a coordinate systems tell us?
 Coordinate system is a way of describing data such as distance,
location, and direction.
 How far is it from point A to point B?
 What are the coordinates for point A and B?
 In which direction is point A and B is located?
Geographic coordinate system

Projected coordinate system

 3.2 Rectangular, Geodetic and spherical coordinates
 The primary requirements of coordinate are to give a unique reference
of location of spatial objects.
 These spatial data include coordinates that define location, shape, and
extent of geographic objects
Coordinate System (3-Dimensional)
Geodetic coordinates (, λ, h)  Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, z)
 Latitude (ϕ) is the angle measured relative to – Note : no need to define the
the equator towards the Poles.
 It is zero on the equator, and increases towards
reference ellipsoid
the two Poles.  Users
 Longitude (λ) is the angle measured relative to – Space geodesists (describe the
the prime meridian either in Eastwards
through λ=+180°, or Westwards through λ=- position of the fiducial station of
180°. the reference frame)
– Note : need definition of the reference
ellipsoid
– Space scientists (describe the
 Users position of satellite orbit)
– Cartographers (for mapping of the Earth) – geodynamic scientist
– Mariners (for navigation) (monitoring of crustal
– Geodetic Surveyors (for geodetic survey of
 Coordinate System (2-Dimensional)

 Projection grid coordinates

– Northing, N
– Easting, E
 Users
– Land Surveyor (for boundary survey)
– Civil Engineer (for construction works)
 Coordinate system
Spherical coordinate (r, ,)
Geodetic coordinate (, λ, h)
 3.3 Transformation between coordinates
 To transform spherical coordinates (r, ,) to rectangular coordinate
(X, Y, Z) use the equation as shown below.

1. A point P has a spherical coordinate of r = 6378788.489 m, spherical latitude of 9.039544,

and longitude of 38.761301. Calculate the rectangular coordinate. (Example -1)
Given: spherical coordinate r=6378788.489


Required: rectangular coordinate (X, Y, Z)?

m
m
m
 Cont.….
 To transform rectangular coordinate (X, Y, Z) to spherical coordinates
(r, ,) use the equation as shown below.

2. A point A on sphere has the following rectangular coordinate X = 4961166.873 m, Y =

3898630.315 m, and Z = 936187.758 m. Calculate the spherical coordinates. (Example -2)
Given: rectangular coordinate X = 4961166.873 m
Y = 3898630.315 m
Z = 936187.758 m
Required: spherical coordinates (r, ,)?
 Cont.….
 To transform geodetic (, λ, h) to Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) use
the equation as shown below.

 The radius of curvature of the prime meridian (N)

N== w= =
 Cont.….
3. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is located at  = 35.092716, geodetic
latitude of  = 11.213525, h = 996 m in WGS 84 datum. Calculate the
rectangular coordinate of the point. (Example -3)
For WGS 84 ellipsoid
Given: a=6378137
1/ f=298.257223563
b=6356752.314 m
==0.006694380
For the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam geodetic coordinate
 = 35.092716
 = 11.213525
h = 996 m
Required: Rectangular coordinate (X, Y, Z)?
= 0.037816989
 Cont.….

w= w=0.9998734
N= = N=6378944.502 m
X=5,120,555.219m
Y=3,597,814.049 m
1,232,376.616 m
 Cont.….
 To transform Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) to geodetic (, λ, h) use
the equation as shown below.
Using Closed Formula

4. Convert the following rectangular coordinate in Adindan Datum to Geodetic coordinate: X =

4962536.72 m, Y = 3898588.309 m, and Z = 930033.327 m. (Example -4)
Given: rectangular coordinate in Adindan Datum X = 4962536.72 m
Y = 3898588.309 m
Z = 930033.327 m
 Cont.….
 Adindan Datum uses Clarke 1880 ellipsoid reference systems
 Semi major axis (a) =6378249.145
 Inverse of flatting (1/f) =293.465
Flatting = 1/293.465 =0.003407561
b=a*(1-f) b=6,356,514.869 m
First eccentricity (e)
=from this e=
e =0.0824834 e=0.082483401 0.006803511
Required: Geodetic coordinate (, λ, h)?
6,310,765.524
= =0.148382024

Cont.….
Since

N=6378716.617
h=


 Assignment (10%)

1. Explain the concepts of the reference ellipsoid and why do we choose a

reference ellipsoid as the reference surface? As well as what are the
requirements for the reference surface selected for geodetic computations?
(2 point)
2. Given the flattening (f) and eccentricity (e), can we define the shape and
size of the reference ellipsoid and why? (1 point)
3. Clarke 1866 ellipsoid has a semi-major axis of a = 6378206.4 m and inverse
flattening 1/f = 294.98. Compute all the ellipsoidal parameters b and e? (2
point)
4. Compute the three dimensional rectangular coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the
point at Dilla town with =59 N, and  = 18 E. On the Bessel Ellipsoid
with a=6377397.155m, 1/f = 299.1528 and e 2=0.0066744. (use h=0 m
above mean sea level) (2.5 point)
5. Compute the geodetic coordinates (,, h) of a point with X=3427118.537m
Y=601225.525m and Z=5327835.205m, on the International Ellipsoid 1924
with a=6378.388m, f=1/297 and e2=0.00672267. (2.5 point)