20CH314T: Piping Design

Dr. Saket Kumar

Assistant Professor
Chemical Engineering Department
 Piping System

1. Water Systems Piping

2. Slurry and Sludge piping

3. Steam Systems Piping

4. Oil Systems Piping

5. Gas Systems Piping

 Water System Piping
Water-distribution systems that serve populated areas and industrial complexes, including offices and light and
heavy industry, are classified broadly as being of the loop, gridiron, or tree types.

Loop system: large feeder mains that

surround areas many city blocks square serve
smaller cross-feed lines connected at each end
into the main loop.

Gridiron (or grid) system: the piping is laid

out in checkerboard fashion, with piping
usually decreasing in size as the distance
increases from the source of supply.

Tree system: there is a single trunk main,

reducing in size with increasing distance from
its source of supply; branch lines are supplied
from the trunk.
 Water System Piping
The grid and loop systems provide better reliability because of their multiple paths. Grid and loop systems are
often backed up with feeder pipes leading directly from the pumping station to remote distribution centers
serving to bolster the supply to meet increased demands with growth of population.

Water distribution systems are made up of pipes, valves, and pumps through which water is moved from the
source to homes, offices, and industries that consume the water.

Types of Water Piping Systems

There are four general types of piping systems in water distribution utilities: transmission lines, in-plant piping
systems, distribution mains, and service lines. Transmission lines carry water from a source of supply to the
distribution system. Distribution mains are the pipelines that carry water from transmission lines and
distribute it throughout a service area, e.g., a community or industrial complex. Service lines are small
diameter pipes that run from the distribution mains to the user.

The prime objective of a distribution network is to supply a sufficient quantity of water to all parts of the
system, at pressures adequate for the requirements of the users at all times and under all conditions of their
demands, including sufficient flow and pressure for fire-fighting purposes.
 Network Analysis of Distribution System
The complexity of the analysis required for a well-designed water-distribution system is comparable to that of
utility electric power networks. There are several procedures that may be used for the analysis of flow in
complex piping networks, such as Hardy-Cross method.

Hardy-Cross Method:

at a junction
around a loop

The Hazen William’s pipe flow formula uses value of n as 1.85 for pipe diameters 80 mm to 1200 mm but can
be suitably extrapolated for higher diameter as well.
 Design Basic Consideration
Design Criteria

Design Pressure: The design pressure shall be based on the maximum expected operating pressure
of a particular system which is determined from the maximum operating pressure of the connected pump,
pressure vessels, relief valve settings, etc, depending on the type of system and equipment used.

The internal design pressure, including the effect of the static head and allowance for pressure surges, shall not
be less than the maximum sustained fluid operating pressure. Consideration shall also be given to pump shut-
off pressure.

Piping subject to external pressure shall be designed for the maximum differential pressure anticipated during
operating, shutdown, or test conditions, excluding pressure tests.

In accordance with ASME B31.1, Paragraph 102.2.4, the piping system shall be considered safe for occasional
short operating periods at higher than design pressure or temperature, if the calculated stress value is not
exceeded by more than 15 percent during less than 10 percent of any 24-hour operating period or by more
than 20 percent during less than 1 percent of any 24-hour operating period.
 Design Basic Consideration
Design Temperature: The design temperature shall be determined on the basis of the maximum expected
operating temperature. The effects of pumping, throttling, heating, cooling, etc, must be considered in the
determination of the design temperature of the piping system.

Pipe Sizing Criteria: Typically, total piping system cost is approximately 7 to 8 percent of the total plant
investment. These values range upward to 30 percent for municipal water systems and some ships. Selection of
pipe sizes, beside affecting initial cost, will also affect operating costs due to their sensitivity to changes in
pressure drop, heat losses, and maintenance requirements.
Other related considerations which have an important impact on pipe size selection, include:
1. Noise—which can result from high velocity flow, cavitation or two-phase flow.
2. Vibration—which can result from noise, excessive velocities at changes in the direction of the fluid flow, or
the causes of cavitation.
3. Erosion or corrosion—due to chemical action of the fluid, excessive velocities, cavitation, and excessive
turbulence at fittings, valves, branch connections, etc.
4.Flow distribution—the more uniform the cross-sectional velocity profile, the more likely that the above
factors will be reduced. This can be achieved by using reasonable velocities along with a piping layout that will
produce a smooth
flow pattern.
5. Cavitation—which can result from the collapse of bubbles close to a metallic surface at a high enough
velocity to cause erosion, and two-phase flow fluids.
 Design Basic Consideration
Effect of Velocity: Higher allowable velocities will lead to smaller pipe sizes and higher pressure drops.
Excessively high velocities can cause noise, vibration, and erosion. Velocities in pump-suction lines shall be
kept sufficiently low in order to maintain the pump’s required net positive suction head (NPSH).
The pressure drop in a system can be decreased by selecting a larger pipe size or sometimes by using more
than one pipe for the total flow.

For water piping systems a velocity in the range of 4 to 15 ft/sec (1.2 to 4.6 m/sec) is acceptable. Depending
upon the material selected, piping design and size is either in the low or high side of this range, considering
the economics of system installation and operation. For example, for brass pipe a velocity between 4 to 15
ft/sec (1.2 to 4.6 m/sec) would be recommended, while for steel pipe, a velocity of 7 to 10 ft/sec (2.1 to 3
m/sec) is the recommended range, while velocities to 30 ft/sec (9.1 m/sec) may be acceptable. Higher
velocities are acceptable if materials less susceptible to erosion (e.g., stainless steel) are selected. Concurrently
reducing vibration and meeting system hydraulic requirements will reduce the piping’s susceptibility to
erosion.

In all cases, it should be recognized that these ranges are recommended only if system operating requirements
are also satisfied. High velocities are often conducive to water hammer problems.
 Water System Piping
Water Hammer:
• Occur when a valve is closed quickly or pump shuts down and
causes the water pressures to rise and fall rapidly.
• For ex: Energy necessary to move the water through the piping is
supplied by the pump. If a valve is suddenly closed at the end of the
discharge line, the moving column of water is brought to a stop at
the valve. The kinetic energy contained in the column of water,
originally given to the water by the pump, is still present and must
be dissipated. The column of water compresses, the pressure rises,
and some of the kinetic energy is transformed to internal energy.
The higher water pressure acts upon the pipe wall and does work in
stretching it, but only a small percentage of energy will be lost in
this. The pipe will obey the laws of vibration and return most of the
energy to the water.
• Sounds like some hammering on pipe
• Can cause damage pipes, causing them burst.
 Water System Piping
To determine time for the wave cycle use

To determine water hammer for instantaneous valve closing, use

Where, T = time for one wave cycle, sec

L= pipeline length, ft (m)
h= water-hammer head above static head, ft (m)
a= velocity of pressure wave, ft/s (m/s)
V= water velocity at instant before valve closure, ft/s (m/s)
g= 32.2 ft/s2 (9.81 m/s2)

To determine water hammer for slower valve closing, use

Where, h2, h1 = pressure after and before valve closing, ft (m)

h2-h1 = pressure rise due to water hammer, ft (m)
V1, V2 = water velocity before and after partial closing of valve, ft/s (m/s)
Water System Piping
 Design Basic Consideration
Pipe-Wall Thickness Selection: Pipe-wall thickness determination begins with the basic hoop stress in the
pipe wall. This stress calculation ignores longitudinal wall stress that exists if the pipe has closed ends. An
example of this is a flask or short header.
Advanced analysis shows that for thin-wall pipe, the outside diameter should be used in the hoop stress
equation:

Where, P = internal design pressure, psi (kPa) [gauge]

D0 = outside diameter of pipe, in (mm)
tmin = minimum required pipe wall thickness, in (mm)
S = allowable stress, psi (kPa)

This equation, called the Barlow formula, is the basis for most code stress-pipewall-thickness calculations such
as those provided in ASME B31.1 and B31.3.
 Design Basic Consideration
For flexible pipe, thickness required to handle deflection from external soil and vehicle loads is calculated using
the Modified Iowa formula:

Where, DL = deflection lag factor

K = bedding constant
W = load per unit length of pipe
r = pipe radius
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material
I = moment of inertia of pipe
E’ = modulus of soil reaction
= deflection

The maximum thickness is determined based on maximum allowable deflection. Maximum allowable
deflection varies for different materials, e.g., steel, ductile iron, PVC, HDPE, etc.
Specifications and Standards
Specifications and Standards
Pipe joints and their applications
 Slurry and Sludge Piping

Slurry is a mixture of solids and liquid. A sludge denotes a mud or a concentrated slurry having a
considerable amount of fine material that imparts high viscosity.

Typical examples of slurries are the solid-liquid mixtures encountered in mineral processing plants and
dredged material from waterways and dams. Most of the slurries are made up with water. However,
industrial paints, rocket fuel, coal-oil mixture, and coal-methanol slurries are made up with liquids other
than water.
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
Design of a slurry piping system involves:
● Selection of pipe diameter
● Estimate of friction loss and pumping requirements
● Selection of pipe material, valves, and fittings
● Selection of pumps
● Selection of instruments and control system for safe and reliable operation

In most slurry applications, a certain minimum velocity needs to be maintained, to keep solids from settling
out in horizontal sections of the pipe. The velocity below which particles tend to settle out and form a
deposit in the pipe is called the deposition velocity. The pipe diameter should be selected such that the
velocity in the pipeline is maintained above the deposition velocity over the operating range of flow rates.
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
Solid throughput: weight of solids to be transported per unit time. It is normally expressed in tons per
hour (tons/h).

Slurry concentration: weight of solids per unit weight of slurry, or volume of solids per unit volume of
slurry.

Slurry Flow behaviour: Flow of slurry in pipes depends upon the interaction between the solids and liquid
as well as between the slurry and the pipe.

Depending upon the velocity of flow, pipe diameter, solids size distribution, fluid properties, and solids
characteristics, four different flow conditions can be encountered in a horizontal or nearly horizontal
pipeline. These are homogeneous flow, heterogeneous flow, intermediate regime, and saltation regime.
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
Homogeneous Flow: Homogeneous flow implies that the solid particles are uniformly distributed across
the pipeline cross section. Homogeneous flow, or a close approximation to it, is encountered in slurries of
high concentrations and fine particle sizes. Slurries exhibiting homogeneous flow properties do not tend to
settle and form a deposit under flowing conditions.

Heterogeneous Flow : In heterogeneous flow conditions, there is a pronounced concentration gradient

across the pipeline cross section. Slurries at low concentration with rapidly settling (coarse particles) solids
generally exhibit heterogeneous flow.

Intermediate Regime: This type of flow occurs when some of the particles are homogeneously distributed
while others are heterogeneously distributed.

Saltation Regime: The fluid turbulence may not be sufficient to keep fast settling particles in suspension.
The particles travel by discontinuous jumps or roll along a sliding or stationary bed on the pipe bottom. This
type of flow will occur with coarse sand and gravel slurries.
 Slurry Characteristics
Slurry Density

100
𝜌𝑚 =
( 𝐶 𝑤 / 𝜌 𝑠 ) + [ ( 100− 𝐶 𝑤 ) / 𝜌 𝐿 ]

Where, = density of slurry mixture, lb/ft3

= density of solid in mixture, lb/ft3
= solids concentration by weight, %
= density of liquid in mixture, lb/ft3

• The variable Cw represents the amount of solid in the mixture by weight.

• The term Cv is a corresponding value in terms of volume.
• The term volume fraction represented by the symbol ф is equal to Cv/100.
• The term volume ratio represents the ratio of the volume of solid to the
volume of liquid.
 Slurry and Sludge Piping

Concentration of solids by volume and weight relation:

𝜌𝑚
𝐶 𝑣 =𝐶 𝑤
𝜌𝑠

Where, = solids concentration by volume, %

= solids concentration by weight, %
= density of slurry mixture, lb/ft3
= density of solid in mixture, lb/ft3

The viscosity of a dilute suspension consisting of solids in a liquid can be calculated approximately from the
volume fraction ф and the viscosity of the liquid using the Einstein equation:
 Slurry and Sludge Piping

• The Einstein equation for the mixture viscosity applies only to laminar flow and to spherical particles. Also it
does not apply for solid concentrations exceeding 1 percent by volume.

• For higher-concentration suspensions the viscosity of the mixture can be calculated using a modified form of
Einstein equation attributed to D. G. Thomas.
Slurry and Sludge Piping
Slurry and Sludge Piping
 Maximum Packing fraction
• Chong et al. have proposed the following equation for concentrated suspensions of spherical particles:

where Cvoo is the maximum packing concentration of the solids in slurry. Equation (C11.8) should
be used for values of Cv greater than 0.4.

• Gay et al. have proposed the following correlations for estimating the Bingham plastic viscosity and yield
stress, based on their experimental data:
Flow of Non Newtonian Fluids
Slurry Rheology

http://thetenthwatch.com/feed/
 Slurry Rheology

http://thetenthwatch.com/feed/
Rheometer
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Fluids may be characterized as Newtonian or non-Newtonian. The distinction is based on how the fluid viscosity
(resistance to flow) varies with the velocity gradient in a pipe. A Newtonian fluid is one in which the shear stress
between adjacent layers of the flowing fluid is proportional to the velocity gradient. The constant of
proportionality is known as the absolute or dynamic viscosity μ of the fluid.

Classical Newton’s equation for Newtonian fluids as follows:

For Newtonian fluids the transition velocity VT can be calculated from

Newtonian and Non-newtonian Fluids
Non – Newtonian fluids
 Non – Newtonian fluids
• The transition velocity for Bingham plastic fluids must be calculated using both the Reynolds
number and another dimensionless parameter called the Hedstrom number.

• For a calculated He, get critical Re

from the chart and obtain the
terminal velocity.
Slurry and Sludge Piping
Slurry and Sludge Piping
Slurry and Sludge Piping
Slurry and Sludge Piping
 Heterogeneous flow
Deposition Velocity
• The velocity below which particles tend to settle out and form a deposit in the pipe.
• Operating the pipeline at or below the deposition velocity for prolonged time could result in a pipeline
blockage.
• The minimum operating velocity in a slurry pipeline should be kept greater than the deposition velocity,
to prevent pipeline blockages.

• A number of empirical correlations have been proposed for estimating the deposition velocity. For
uniform-size particles, the Durand correlation, given as follows, is widely used:
Durand coefficient as a function of particle size
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
• Most industrial applications involve non-uniform-size particles. Pilot plant test results or prior experience
with similar material is generally used for estimating deposition velocity for non-uniform-size particles.

• Oroskar and Turian have developed a semi empirical correlation which can be used for nonuniform-size
particles. Their correlation is as follows:
Slurry and Sludge Piping
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
• The settling velocity wo of a single particle in a fluid is given as:
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
• Pressure loss in slurry pipelines with heterogeneous flow
 Slurry and Sludge Piping
• Pressure drop
 Heterogeneous flow
Deposition Velocity
• The velocity below which particles tend to settle out and form a deposit in the pipe.
 Steam Systems Piping

Steam traps

• Steam systems piping is used in many industrial applications for creating the pressure and energy
required to drive machines and other equipment and to convey the condensed steam back to the start of
the process.
• Steam is used in heating and for converting the energy in water to beneficial use in industries.
• Steam is generally transported through piping systems and distributed to various locations with minimal
noise and in the absence of air.
 Steam Systems Piping
Codes and Standards:
The following American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) codes and standards are used in the design
and construction of steam piping systems.

1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code—Section 3

2. ASME Code for Pressure Piping—B31.1
3. ASME Code for Pressure Piping—B31.3
4. ASME B36.10 M
5. ASME B36.19 M
6. ASME B16.9

Other codes include special regulations and standards imposed by individual state, city, and local agencies
having jurisdiction over the installation and operation of steam piping.
ASME B31.1 Code for Pressure Piping
 Steam Systems Piping
Types of Steam Systems Piping
Steam systems piping may be categorized as steam distribution systems, underground steam piping, fossil-
fueled power plants, and nuclear fuel power plants.
• The steam distribution systems consist of trunk line distribution systems and main and feeder
distribution network systems.
• Underground piping consists of piping used in the district heating industry where steam piping is used to
carry process steam.
• In fossil-fueled power plants superheated steam is supplied to turbines and for auxiliary services.
• In nuclear power plants steam is supplied from the boiler to the power plant for various services within
the power plant.
 Steam Systems Piping
Properties of steam
• Steam is produced by the evaporation of water. The heat required to form steam from a unit weight of
water is known as the latent heat of vaporization, and it will vary with the pressure.
• At an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (psia), the latent heat of
vaporization of dry steam is equal to 970 British thermal units per pound (Btu/lb).
• When a quantity of water is heated to the point where vaporization occurs and a quantity of liquid and
vapor are in equilibrium at the same temperature and pressure, we say that there is saturated vapor in
equilibrium with saturated liquid.
• As heat is applied and more liquid vaporizes to form steam, a point would be reached when the liquid
will be uniformly dispersed within the steam.
• This mixture of vapor and liquid is referred to as wet saturated steam. The quality of steam, also known as
the dryness fraction, Sx is defined as the ratio of the mass of saturated vapor (dry steam) to the mass of
the total mixture of water and vapor (wet steam).
 Steam Systems Piping
Pressure drop can be evaluated analytically

Friction factor for laminar flow;

Colebrook relation
 Steam Systems Piping
Unwin formula
The Unwin formula has been successfully used in steam piping calculations for many years. It is quite
satisfactory for most purposes. However, at high flow rates, the pressure drops predicted by the Unwin
formula are found to be higher than actual values. The Unwin formula in USCS units is as follows:

In SI units, the Unwin formula is as follows:

Steam Systems Piping
 Steam Systems Piping
Babcock formula
Another empirical equation for steam flow is the Babcock formula. It can also be used to calculate the
pressure drop in steam piping. A version of the Babcock formula is as follows:

In SI units the Babcock formula is

 Steam Systems Piping
Fritzche’s equation
This is another empirical equation for calculating pressure drop in steam piping. As indicated earlier, charts
have been constructed based on this equation for quickly calculating the pressure drop. Fritzche’s equation
is as follows:

In SI units Fritzche’s equation is as follows:

 Steam Systems Piping
Another equation that takes into account the compressibility of the steam, by using an expansion factor Y, is
the modified Darcy formula applicable to steam and other compressible fluids. This equation is expressed
as follows:
Steam Systems Piping
Steam Systems Piping
 Assignment II
Due date: 18th April 2023

Write a report on Gas Systems Piping.

Contents of reports
• Introduction
• Codes and Standards used in gas piping system.
• Correlations for Gaseous properties, transmission factor, friction factor and Pressure drop.
• Pipe Stress analysis

Use materials from the reference book and published journal papers. Write in your words and do
not copy paste.
 Oil Pipeline System

• Oil systems piping includes those pipelines that transport oil and petroleum products from refineries and
tank farms to storage facilities and end-user locations.
• We will discuss calculations that are required for sizing crude oil and petroleum products (diesel,
gasoline, etc.) pipelines.
• Since oil is generally considered incompressible and therefore its volume does not change appreciably
with pressure, its analysis is similar to that of other incompressible fluids such as water.
• We will begin our discussion with an exploration of the properties of crude oil and petroleum products
and how they affect pipeline transportation.
• We will also cover pumping requirements such as the type of equipment and horsepower needed to
transport these products from the various sources to their destinations.
 Oil Pipeline System
Characterization of petroleum products
• The volume of a petroleum product is measured in gallons or barrels in USCS units and in cubic meters
(m3) or liters (L) in Systeme International (SI) units. One barrel of a petroleum product is equal to 42 U.S.
gallons.
• Specific gravity is a measure of how heavy (density) a liquid is compared to (density) water at a particular
temperature.
• In the petroleum industry a commonly used term is the API gravity, named after the American Petroleum
Institute (API).
• The API gravity of a petroleum product is measured in the laboratory using the ASTM D1298 method.
• The API scale of gravity is based on a temperature of 60°F and an API gravity of 10 for water.

• The specific gravity of a liquid and its API gravity are related by the following two equations:

It is incorrect to state that the API of a liquid is 37°API at 70°F. The phrase “37°API” automatically implies the
temperature of measurement is 60°F.
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System

The specific gravity of a petroleum product

decreases with an increase in temperature.

Figure 6.1 Variation of specific gravity with temperature

for various petroleum liquids.
 Oil Pipeline System
• It is more common to calculate the specific gravity of a petroleum product at any temperature from the
specific gravity at the standard temperature of 60◦F.
• We can then rewrite Eq. (6.3) in terms of the unknown value of specific gravity Sg t at some given
temperature T as follows:

• The constant a in Eq. (6.4) depends on the particular liquid and represents the slope of the specific gravity versus
temperature line for that product.
 Oil Pipeline System
Specific Gravity of Blended Products
• The specific gravity of a mixture of two or more petroleum products can be calculated fairly easily using
the weighted-average method.
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. Consider petroleum product flowing through a
pipeline. Each layer of liquid flowing through the pipe exerts a certain amount of frictional resistance to
the adjacent layer.
 Oil Pipeline System
Sometimes, the viscosity ν in centistokes of a petroleum product and its absolute temperature T may be
represented by the following equation:

where A and B are constants that depend on the petroleum product and T is the absolute temperature in °R
(°F + 460) or K (°C + 273).
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
For viscosity variations with temperature, using the ASTM method, the following analytical method may be
used. Here the relationship between viscosity and temperature is given by a log log equation as follows:

where log is the logarithm to base 10 and Z is a parameter that depends on the kinematic viscosity of the
liquid ν in centistokes and T is the absolute temperature in °R or K. As before, the constants A and B depend
on the specific petroleum product.

The parameter Z depends on the liquid viscosity as follows:

where C and D are further parameters that depend on the viscosity as follows:
Oil Pipeline System
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
Bulk Modulus
• The bulk modulus of a liquid indicates the compressibility of the liquid. Even though most petroleum
liquids are incompressible for all practical purposes, this property becomes significant in some instances
of liquid flow through pipelines.
• Bulk modulus is generally defined as the pressure required to produce a unit change in volume.
• If the volume is V and a pressure of P causes a volume change of V, the bulk modulus becomes

• For most petroleum products the bulk modulus K is in the range of 200,000 to 400,000 psi (29 to 58 GPa
in SI units) .
• The bulk modulus is used in flow measurements of petroleum products and in line pack calculations of
long-distance pipelines.
• There are two distinct values of bulk modulus defined in practice. The isothermal bulk modulus is
measured at a constant temperature, while the adiabatic bulk modulus is based on adiabatic conditions
(no heat transfer).
 Oil Pipeline System
• Adiabatic bulk modulus Ka is calculated from

• The isothermal bulk modulus Ki is calculated from

Oil Pipeline System
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System

Vapor Pressure
• Vapor pressure is an important property of petroleum liquids when dealing with storage tanks and
centrifugal pumps.
• Depending upon the location of petroleum product storage tanks, local air quality regulations require
certain types of seals around floating roof tanks.
• These seal designs depend upon the vapor pressure of the liquid in the storage tank.
• Also, careful analysis of centrifugal pump suction piping used for higher vapor pressure liquids is
required in order to prevent cavitation damage to pump impellers at low suction pressures.
 Oil Pipeline System
• When pumping petroleum products through a pipeline,
the pressure at any point along the pipeline must be
maintained above the vapor pressure of the liquid at the
pumping temperature.

• This will ensure that the petroleum product will remain in

the liquid phase throughout.

• Otherwise liquid may vaporize at some points and two-

phase flow may occur that will cause damage to
pumping equipment.

• Vapor pressure is measured in the laboratory at a

standard temperature of 100°F and is referred to as the
Reid vapor pressure.

• ASTM specifications outline the laboratory method of

determining this value. Once we know the Reid vapor
pressure, we can calculate the vapor pressure at the
operating temperature, such as 60°F or 70°F .
 Oil Pipeline System
Velocity
• The velocity of flow depends on the pipe diameter and flow rate.
• In petroleum transportation, flow rates are usually expressed in bbl/h, bbl/day, or gal/min.

• For flow rate in bbl/h:

• For flow rate in gal/min:

• In SI units, the velocity equation is as follows:

 Oil Pipeline System
• In terms of more commonly used units in the oil industry, we have the following versions of the Reynolds
number equation:

• In petroleum transportation units, the Reynolds number is calculated using the following equations:

• In SI units, the Reynolds number is expressed as follows

 Oil Pipeline System
Pressure drop as a liquid flows through a pipeline

Major losses Minor losses

Losses due At inlets and exists

to friction in
constant At enlargements
area pipes and contractions
At bends

At valves and
fittings
 Oil Pipeline System
Pressure drop can be evaluated analytically:

Darcy equation:

Friction factor for laminar flow;

Colebrook relation

• Another version of the Darcy equation in SI units is as follows:

Moody Chart
 Oil Pipeline System
Transmission factor:
The transmission factor is a term that is used in conjunction with pressure drop and flow rate in pipelines.
The transmission factor, a dimensionless number, is proportional to the flow rate, whereas the friction
factor is inversely proportional to the flow rate. With a higher transmission factor, the flow rate is
increased, whereas with a higher friction factor, flow rate decreases.

The transmission factor F is inversely related to the Darcy friction factor f as follows:

2
𝐹=
√𝑓
Oil Pipeline System
Oil Pipeline System
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
Hazen-Williams equation:
• The Hazen-Williams equation has been used for the calculation of pressure drop in water pipelines and
water distribution networks. This equation has also been successfully applied to the calculation of
pressure drop in refined petroleum product pipelines, such as gasoline and diesel pipelines.

• A coefficient C, known as the Hazen-Williams C factor, is used to account for the internal pipe
roughness or efficiency.

• Unlike the Moody diagram or Colebrook- White equation, the Hazen-Williams equation does not use
the Reynolds number or viscosity of the liquid to calculate the pressure drop.

• The Hazen-Williams equation is generally expressed as follows

 Oil Pipeline System

• Usually, the C factor is determined based on experience with the particular liquid and the piping system.

• The Hazen-Williams equation (6.55) is not convenient to use when dealing with petroleum pipelines due to
the units employed in the original form. Therefore, more acceptable forms of the Hazen-Williams equation
have been used in practice.
 Oil Pipeline System
• A modified version of the Hazen-Williams equation in pipeline units is

• Other variants in petroleum pipeline units are as follows:

 Oil Pipeline System
• In SI units, the Hazen-Williams equation is expressed as follows:
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
Miller equation
• The Miller equation, or the Benjamin Miller formula, is used for calculating pressure drop in crude oil
pipelines.
• Unlike the Colebrook-White equation this formula does not use the pipe roughness.
• It can be used to calculate the flow rate for a given pipe size and liquid properties, given the pressure
drop due to friction.
• One form of the Miller equation is as follows:

• Rearranging the equation to solve for pressure drop, we get

 Oil Pipeline System
Miller equation
• In SI Units, the Miller equation has the following form:
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
Shell-MIT equation
• The Shell-MIT equation, also known as the MIT equation, was initially used by the Shell pipeline
company for modeling the flow of high-viscosity heated crude oil pipelines.
• It can be used to calculate the flow rate for a given pipe size and liquid properties, given the pressure
drop due to friction.
• This equation for pressure drop uses a modified Reynolds number Rm, which is a multiple of the
normal Reynolds number.
• From Rm a friction factor is calculated depending on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
• The Reynolds number of flow is first calculated from
 Oil Pipeline System
Shell-MIT equation
• Next, a friction factor is calculated from one of the following equations:

• The laminar flow limit is the same as before: Reynolds number R < 2100
• The friction factor f in Eqs. (6.70) and (6.71) is not the Darcy friction factor we have used so far with the
Colebrook equation. Therefore we cannot directly use it in the Darcy equation (6.45) to calculate the pressure
drop.
• The pressure drop due to friction with the Shell-MIT equation is then calculated as follows:
 Oil Pipeline System
Shell-MIT equation
• In SI units the MIT equation is expressed as follows:
Oil Pipeline System
 Oil Pipeline System
Other pressure drop equations
• Two other equations for friction factor calculations are the Churchill equation and the Swamee-Jain equation.
• These equations are explicit equations in friction factor calculation, unlike the Colebrook-White equation,
which requires solution by trial and error.
• Churchill equation. This equation for the friction factor was proposed by Stuart Churchill and published in
Chemical Engineering magazine in November 1977. It is as follows:
 Oil Pipeline System
Pipe Stress Analysis

• The pipe used to transport petroleum product must be strong enough to withstand the internal pressure
necessary to move liquid at the desired flow rate.
• The wall thickness T necessary to safely withstand an internal pressure of P depends upon the pipe
diameter D and yield strength of the pipe material and is generally calculated based upon Barlow’s
equation:

where Sh represents the hoop stress in the circumferential direction in the pipe material.
 Oil Pipeline System
• Another stress, termed the axial stress or longitudinal stress, acts perpendicular to the cross section of
the pipe. The axial stress is one-half the magnitude of the hoop stress.

• Applying a safety factor and including the yield strength of the pipe material, Barlow’s equation is
modified for use in petroleum piping calculation as follows:

• High-strength steel pipe may be designated as API 5LX-52, 5LX-60, or 5LX-80. The last two digits of the pipe
specification denote the SMYS of the pipe material. Thus 5LX-52 pipe has a yield strength of 52,000 psi.
Oil Pipeline System
Oil Pipeline System
Oil Pipeline System
 Gas Systems Piping

• Gas systems piping consists of pipelines that are used to transport compressible fluids such as natural
gas and other hydrocarbons.
• Examples include natural gas gathering systems, gas distribution, and transmission piping.
• The calculation methods discussed in this chapter are applicable to any compressible fluid including
methane and ethane.
 Gas Systems Piping
Gas Properties
• Specific gravity:

The specific gravity of a gas can also be represented as a ratio of its molecular weight to that of air.
 Gas Systems Piping
Gas Properties
• Viscosity: The viscosity of gases is very low compared to that of liquids. (For example, water has a
viscosity of 0.01 poise compared to natural gas which has a viscosity of 0.00012 poise).
• However, the viscosity of a gas is an important property in the study of gas flow in pipe.
• If the viscosity of each component gas is known, we can calculate the viscosity of the gas mixture,
knowing the mole percent of each component in the mixture, using the following formula:

where yi represents the mole fraction of each component gas with molecular weight Mi , and μi is the
viscosity of the component. The viscosity of the mixture is μm.
Gas Systems Piping
 Gas Systems Piping
Gas Properties
• Ideal Gas:

Constant Temperature

The real gas equation can be written as follows:

The value of the compressibility factor Z is

calculated using one of the following methods:
Gas Systems Piping
 Gas Systems Piping
California Natural Gas Association (CNGA) method
• This is one of the easiest equations for calculating the compressibility factor from given gas gravity,
temperature, and pressure values. Using this method the compressibility factor Z is calculated from the
following formula
 Gas Systems Piping
Pressure Drop Due to Friction
Pressure drop in a gas pipeline is calculated using one of several formulas, each of which will be discussed.
1. General flow equation
2. Colebrook-White equation
3. Modified Colebrook-White equation
4. AGA equation
5. Panhandle A equation
6. Panhandle B equation
7. Weymouth equation

General flow equation. The general flow equation for the

steady-state isothermal flow in a gas pipeline is as follows:
 Gas Systems Piping
Transmission factor (F) and friction factor (f)
Gas Systems Piping
Gas Systems Piping
 Gas Systems Piping
Modified Colebrook-White equation
• In 1956, the U.S. Bureau of Mines published a report proposing a modified version of the Colebrook-
White equation. The modified equation tends to produce a higher friction factor and hence a more
conservative solution. It is represented by the following equation:
 Gas Systems Piping
AGA equation:
• The AGA NB-13 method is based on a report published under the sponsorship of the American Gas
Association (AGA) in 1964 and 1965. Based on this report, the transmission factor F is calculated using
two different equations.
• The first one is based on the rough pipe law, and the second one is based on the smooth pipe flow.

• For fully turbulent flow:

• For partially turbulent flow:

where Ft is the smooth pipe transmission factor and Df is the pipe

drag factor that depends on the bend index (BI) of the pipe.
• The drag factor Df is used to account for bends, fittings, etc., and
ranges in value from 0.90 to 0.99. The bend index (BI) is the sum of
all the angles of all bends in the pipe segment.
 Gas Systems Piping
Panhandle A equation
• The Panhandle A equation for flow rate and pressure drop in a gas pipeline does not use pipe
roughness or a friction factor. Instead an efficiency factor E is used as described.
 Gas Systems Piping
Panhandle B equation
• Similar to the Panhandle A equation, the Panhandle B equation calculates the flow rate for a given
pressure drop in a gas pipeline and does not use pipe roughness or a friction factor.
• Instead an efficiency factor E is used as described.
Gas Systems Piping
Gas Systems Piping
 Gas Systems Piping
Weymouth equation
This formula is generally used for short pipelines and gathering systems. Like the Panhandle equations,
this equation also uses an efficiency factor.

P1 is the upstream pressure and P2 is the downstream pressure, both in psia. All other symbols are as defined
before.
Gas Systems Piping
Thank You