Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill.

Chapter 4
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The first law of  Fixed or moving
thermodynamics: Example: boundary
• An expression of
the conservation Expansion  Boundary work.
of energy and  Conservation
principle, in Closed compression energy.
which during an System of piston  Polytropic process:
interaction, inside an o Isothermal
energy can enclosed o Isobaric
change from one cylinder.
form to another o Isochoric
but the total First Law  Energy balance.
amount of  Enthalpy.
energy remains
constant, and it Example:  Conservation energy
is asserts that Water flow and mass.
the energy
Open
System through a  Energy transport with
cannot be throttling
Thermodynamics
created or mass.
valve.  Steady flow system.
destroyed
 Steady flow devices.
Refrigeration
System  Dependency of second law and
first law.
Heat Pump  Kelvin-Planck statement.
Second  Clausius statement.
Law  Coefficient of performance (COP).
Heat
Engine  Thermal efficiency.
 Perpetual motion machine.
Carnot  Reversible and irreversible
Cycle process.
2
The Laws of Thermodynamics

0th Law = Thermal equilibrium.

“ The zeroth law of the thermodynamics states that if two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, they
are also in equilibrium ”.

1st Law = Energy is conserved.

“ Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but it can only
be converted from one form to another ”.

2nd Law = Energy only can be transfer from high energy level to low energy level.
“ It asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and
actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy ”.

“ Entropy is not conserved. Entropy always changes in one

direction (increases) ”.
3
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system
in a piston-cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive  for expansion
Wb is negative  for compression

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called
A gas does a boundary work.
differential
amount of work
Wb as it forces
the piston to
move by a
differential
amount ds. 4
 The boundary
work done
during a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

The area under the process

curve on a P-V diagram
represents the boundary work. The net work done
during a cycle is the
difference between
the work done by
the system and the
work done on the
system.
6
Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes
Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants
Polytropic
process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1
(isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

What is the boundary

work for a constant-
volume process?

Schematic and
P-V diagram for
a polytropic
process. 8
The Polytropic Processes

9
ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Energy balance for any system
undergoing any process

Energy balance
in the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per

unit mass basis
Energy balance in
differential form

Energy balance
for a cycle

10
Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. for closed systems when sign
convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
11
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression

U  Wb  H
constant-pressure process. Q is to the process:
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

From chapter 3

12
 13

13
 SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as
the pressure is maintained constant.

Constant-volume
and constant-
pressure specific
Specific heat is the energy heats cv and cp
required to raise the (values are for
temperature of a unit mass helium gas).
of a substance by one
degree in a specified way. 14
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units
identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
15
Idea Gases
• An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of a set of randomly-
moving, non-interacting point particles.
• The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law,
a simplified equation of state, and easier to be treated.
• At normal conditions such as standard temperature and pressure,
most real gases behave qualitatively like an ideal gas.
• Many gases such as air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, noble gases,
and some heavier gases like carbon dioxide can be treated like
ideal gases within reasonable tolerances.
• Generally, a gas behaves more like an ideal gas at higher
temperature and lower density (i.e. lower pressure).

16
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only. 24
• At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated.
specific heats depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference
pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1
are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c tables, 0 K is chosen as the
for cp reference temperature.
equations). 25
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an
average value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation  u = cv 
T is valid for any kind
of process, constant-
volume or not.
26
Three ways of calculating  u and  h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly
very convenient when property
tables are not available. The results Three ways of calculating u.
obtained are reasonably accurate if
the temperature interval is not very
large.

27
 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
• Many diatomic gases, including air,
determined from a knowledge of
have a specific heat ratio of about
cv and R.
1.4 at room temperature.
28
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
29
Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 30