Cooperative Communications

Source: WIRELESS Communication: Chapter: 22 Andreas –f – Molisch

Principle of Relaying
● Dedicated relays relays that never act as source or destination of the information, but
whose sole purpose is to facilitate the information exchange of other nodes.
● Peer nodes acting as relays  mobile handsets or sensor nodes, can change their roles
depending on the situation at hand – sometimes they help to forward information and
sometimes they act as a source or destination.
Fundamentals of Relaying
● Fundamental Protocols (assuming relaying node operates in half duplex mode)
In Amplify-and-Forward (AF), the relay amplifies the received signal by a certain factor, and retransmits it.
In Decode-and-Forward (DF), the relay decodes the packet and then subsequently re-encodes and
retransmits it.
Compress-and-Forward (CF), the relay creates a quantized (compressed) version of the signal it obtains
from the source and forwards that to the destination; the destination combines this compressed signal with
the directly transmitted signal from the source.
Routing and Resource Allocation in Multi-Hop Networks
● Dijkstra Algorithm
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Goals and Classifications of Routing Protocols
● Goals
(i) The energy consumption for the forwarding of the information should be kept as small as
possible
(ii) The lifetime of the network, i.e., the time until the first node runs out of battery power,
should be maximized,
(iii) The protocol should be distributed, i.e., not require centralized control
(iv) The protocol should be able to react quickly to changes in the topology or link states,
(v) The protocol should be bandwidth efficient, i.e., achieve high throughput in the
bandwidth allocated to the network
(vi) The end-to-end transmission time (delay) should be minimized.
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Taking the changing topology and link states into account, the routing can be done in one of
the following two ways:
(i) proactive: in this case, the network keeps track of the optimum routes from all possible
sources to all possible destinations at all times. Thus, the actual transmission of packets can
be done very quickly, as the optimum route is immediately available. On the downside, the
overhead required to keep track of all the routes can be significant.
(ii) reactive: in this approach, a route to a destination is only determined when there is
actually a packet to be sent to that particular destination, i.e., on demand. This approach is
more efficient, but clearly leads to a slower delivery of packets.
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Source Routing
● Each information generating node can determine the path in which the packet flows.
● Sequence of nodes are added to the packet so that every node will know the details of next
node.
● Loop free

Proactive source routing

● In proactive source routing ,link state information is propagated throughout the network.
● If there is a new node its information is updated in the table and forwarded to neighbors.
● Information overhead
Dynamic Source Routing(DSR)
● In dynamic source routing(DSR) , its on demand routing.
● The routing procedure consists of two steps: an initial route discovery, followed by route
maintenance that reacts to changes in the link states in the network.
● During the route discovery, the network is flooded with so-called route request packets.
● The route request contains the Identification (ID) of the intended information destination, a
unique packet ID, as well as a list of nodes that have already been visited by the message.
● When a node receives a route request packet, it checks whether it is either the intended
destination or has a path to the destination stored in its own routing table.
● If that is not the case, the node rebroadcasts the route request, adding its own address to the
list of visited nodes in the message.
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● If the node is the destination (or has a path to the destination), then the node answers with a
route reply packet, which tracks back along the identified path to the source, and finally
informs the source about the sequence of nodes that have to be taken from source to
destination
● During DSR route maintenance, the protocol observes whether links in the established route
are“broken”, if the link is broken, either another stored route is used or route discovery
process happens again.
● Problem with DSR is reply storm. i,e if lot of neighbors know the root to the target, they try
to send the information simultaneously .
● Results in waste of network resources.
Link state based routing
● Link state advertisements (state of the link) is sent to every other nodes in the network.
● It contains following details:
 the ID of the node that is creating the advertisement,
the nodes to which the advertising node is connected, as well as the link quality (edge weights) of that link,
the sequence number, which indicates how “fresh” the information is (the sequence number is incremented
every time the node sends out a new advertisement).
● Based on this information, a node can then construct the most efficient routes through the
network to all other nodes, by means of the Dijkstra algorithm.
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● Popular algorithm used in wireless network is OLSR(optimized link state routing
protocol).Its a proactive protocol.
● In OLSR ,it uses a concept of MPR(Multi point relays)
● it limits the neighbor set to two hop neighbors and link state information to only those
neighbors.
● The set of MPR for one node will be subset of one hop neighbors.
● One hop neighbors all selected in such a way that there will be only one route to reach two
hop neighbors.
Distance Vector Routing
● Uses Bellman – Ford algorithm
● In distance vector routing, each node maintains a list of all destinations that only contains
the cost of getting to that destination, and the next node to send the message to.
● Thus, the source node only knows to which node to hand the packet, which in turn knows
the next node, and so on.
● This approach has the advantage of vastly reduced storage costs compared to link-state
algorithms
Drawbacks
● Slow convergence: compared to Dijkstra algorithm, Bellman - Ford algorithm requires
multiple pass ,in the fast changing network topology the topology may change before the
optimized route is set up.
● Count to infinity:
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solution
● A solution of the counting-to-infinity problem can be obtained by means of destination
sequences, resulting in the DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector) algorithm.
● For this case, the nodes store not only the cost of getting to the destination and the next
node on the route but also a sequence number.
● Each node then periodically advertises routes to other destinations; the destination increases
the sequence number and propagates the route to other nodes in the network.
● The route that is selected is the one with the largest sequence number in the network. If a
link is broken, the sequence number is increased and the node cost is increased to infinity.
● This change is immediately propagated to other nodes.
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Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV )
● The Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV ) routing algorithm is the reactive version
of DSDV.
● Routes are built up using route requests and route replies (similar to DSR): when a source
needs to send a packet to a destination for which it does not already have a route, it
broadcasts a route request.
● Nodes that hear this request update their information for the source node and set up
backward pointers to the source node in the route tables.
● If the node has a route to the destination, it replies to the source; otherwise, it broadcasts the
information to further nodes.
HIERACHICAL ROUTING
● LEACH routing protocol arranges the nodes in the
network into small clusters and chooses one of them as
the cluster-head. Node first senses its target and then
sends the relevant information to its cluster-head.
● Then the cluster head aggregates and compresses the
information received from all the nodes and sends it to
the base station.
● The nodes chosen as the cluster head drain out more
energy as compared to the other nodes as it is required
to send data to the base station which may be far
located.
 Geographical Routing
● Some routing protocols make use of geographical information,
such as GPS coordinates. Typically, nodes communicate their
location through the network, so that other nodes can determine
the shortest path.
● Using geographical information makes it possible to select the
truly shortest path. Furthermore, one only needs an
(geographical) address to contact a host.
● The disadvantage is, obviously, that each node has to know its
location.
● In some environments, a GPS receiver can be used to obtain the
location. However, GPS receivers are expensive and consume
relatively much power.
DATA DRIVEN ROUTING :DIRECTED DIFFUSION
● The monitoring station (sink) requests data by sending out an interest message, which
contains specifics of the type of information that it wants, intervals at which the data are to
be collected, and geographical area.
● The message is propagated throughout the network; during this propagation, the nodes also
set up gradients, i.e., reply links toward the nodes from which the interest statement was
received.
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● The transmission of data occurs in three steps: advertising, request, and data transmission.
● In the advertising step, a node uses meta-data to advertise the existence of new data; in the
request stage, the recipient requests the data if they are useful (e.g., not already collected
from another node that has similar/correlated data), and in the data transmission stage, the
actual data are sent.
PROS AND CONS OF NODE MOBILITY
● PROS: Imagine that a data packet has to be sent from node A to node B, both of which are
static, and widely separated. Node A then transmits the packet to a highly mobile node C
when it is passing by node A. Node C stores the message, and when it comes into the
vicinity of node B, transmits it. Thus, the large distance between nodes A and B can be
bridged without either high transmit power for direct transmission, or multiple
transmissions.
● The key drawback of high node mobility is that the network can become temporarily
disconnected, especially in sparse networks, where there are only few possible routes
between a source and a destination.
● A routing algorithm that takes account of the node mobility is “epidemic routing.”
● Whenever two nodes come into range of each other, they exchange all the packets that they
do not have in common. In this way, every packet is ultimately distributed to every node in
the network. This approach is quite wasteful of resources.
Power allocation strategies
● Routes fixed transmission rate fixed : Every node should transmit at a power which ensures
SNR at sink is high.
● Routes fixed transmission rate is variable : Ensures on time delivery of packet at the
destination and also conserves energy
● Routes and transmission rate are both variable