DELAY
3.1
Acknowledgement
3.2
DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.
3.3
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
3.4
Example 3.16
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
3.5
Example 3.17
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by
using the formula. Each signal level is represented by
3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as
well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.
3.6
Example 3.18
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate
of 100 pages per sec. What is the required bit rate of the
channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits (ascii), the bit rate is
3.7
Propagation & Transmission delay
Propagation speed - speed at which a
bit travels though the medium from
source to destination.
Transmission speed - the speed at
which all the bits in a message arrive at
the destination. (difference in arrival
time of first and last bit)
3.8
Propagation and Transmission Delay
Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed
Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps
Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay +
Queueing time + Processing time
3.9
Example 3.45
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic
Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
3.10
Example 3.46
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:
3.11
Example 3.46 (continued)
Note that in this case, because the message is short and
the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.
3.12
Example 3.47
What are the propagation time and the transmission
time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.
3.13
Example 3.47 (continued)
Note that in this case, because the message is very long
and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
The transmission delay = L/R = 8000 bits / 10000000 bps = 0.0008 seconds
The number of packets that can be transmitted in a second into the link = R / L =
10000000 bps / 8000 bits = 1250 packets
3.20
3.21
3.22
