Discrete Mathematics

Rules of Inference
Lecture #06
Rules of Inference
Argument: a sequence of statements that end with a
conclusion.
By valid, we mean that the conclusion, or final statement of
the argument, must follow from the truth of the preceding
statements, or premises, of the argument.
An argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all the
premises to be true and the conclusion to be false.
To deduce new statements from statements we already have,
we use rules of inference which are templates for
constructing valid arguments.
Rules of inference are our basic tools for establishing the
truth of statements.
Valid Arguments in Propositional Logic
“If you have a current password, then you can log onto the
network.” (Premises)
“You have a current password.” (Premises)
Therefore,
“You can log onto the network.” (Conclusion)
 Use p to represent “You have a current password” and q to
represent “You can log onto the network.” Then, the argument
has the form
p→q
p
∴q
where ∴ is the symbol that denotes “therefore.”
Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic
The tautology (p ∧ (p → q)) → q is the basis of the rule of
inference called modus ponens, or the law of detachment.
(Modus ponens is Latin for mode that affirms.)
This tautology leads to the following valid argument form
p
p →q
∴q
 “If it snows today, then we will go skiing” and its hypothesis,
“It is snowing today,” are true. Then, by modus ponens, it
follows that the conclusion of the conditional statement,
“We will go skiing,” is true.
Rules of Inference
State which rule of inference is the basis of the
following argument: “It is below freezing now.
Therefore, it is either below freezing or raining now.”
Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is below
freezing now” and q the proposition “It is raining now.”
Then this argument is of the form
p
∴p∨q
This is an argument that uses the addition rule.
Rules of Inference
State which rule of inference is the basis of the
following argument: “It is below freezing and raining
now. Therefore, it is below freezing now.”
Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is below
freezing now,” and let q be the proposition “It is
raining now.” This argument is of the form
p
∴p∧q
This argument uses the simplification rule.
Rules of Inference
State which rule of inference is used in the argument: If it rains
today, then we will not have a barbecue today. If we do not have a
barbecue today, then we will have a barbecue tomorrow.
Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a barbecue
tomorrow.
Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is raining today,” let q be the
proposition “We will not have a barbecue today,” and let r be the
proposition “We will have a barbecue tomorrow.” Then this
argument is of the form
p→q
q→r
∴p→r
Hence, this argument is a hypothetical syllogism.
Rules of Inference
 Show that the premises “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is
colder than yesterday,” “We will go swimming only if it is sunny,”
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If
we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset” lead to the
conclusion “We will be home by sunset.”
 Solution: Let p be the proposition “It is sunny this afternoon,” q
the proposition “It is colder than yesterday,” r the proposition “We
will go swimming,” s the proposition “We will take a canoe trip,”
and t the proposition “We will be home by sunset.” Then the
premises become ¬p →q,r → p, ¬r → s, and s → t.
 The conclusion is simply t.
 We need to give a valid argument with premises ¬p ∧ q, r → p, ¬r
→ s, and s → t and conclusion t.
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Rules of Inference
 Problem: Show that the premises “If you send me an e-mail
message, then I will finish writing the program,” “If you do not
send me an e-mail message, then I will go to sleep early,” and “If
I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling refreshed” lead to
the conclusion “If I do not finish writing the program, then I will
wake up feeling refreshed.”
 Solution: Let p be the proposition “You send me an e-mail
message,” q the proposition “I will finish writing the program,” r
the proposition “I will go to sleep early,” and s the proposition “I
will wake up feeling refreshed.” Then the premises are p → q, ¬p
→ r, and r → s. The desired conclusion is ¬q → s. We need to
give a valid argument with premises p → q, ¬p → r, and r → s
and conclusion ¬q → s.
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Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
We have discussed rules of inference for propositions.
Now we will see some important rules of inference for
statements involving quantifiers.
Universal instantiation is the rule of inference used
to conclude that P (c) is true, where c is a particular
member of the domain, given the premise ∀xP (x).
Universal instantiation is used when we conclude
from the statement “All women are wise” that “Lisa is
wise,” where Lisa is a member of the domain of all
women.
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
Universal generalization is the rule of inference that
states that ∀xP (x) is true, given the premise that P (c) is
true for all elements c in the domain.
Existential instantiation is the rule that allows us to
conclude that there is an element c in the domain for
which P (c) is true if we know that ∃xP (x) is true. We
cannot select an arbitrary value of c here, but rather it
must be a c for which P (c) is true.
Existential generalization is the rule of inference that
is used to conclude that ∃xP (x) is true when a particular
element c with P (c) true is known.
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
Problem: Show that the premises “Everyone in this
discrete mathematics class has taken a course in
computer science” and “Marla is a student in this class”
imply the conclusion “Marla has taken a course in
computer science.”
Solution: Let D(x) denote “x is in this discrete
mathematics class,” and let C(x) denote “x has taken a
course in computer science.” Then the premises are
∀x(D(x) → C(x)) and D(Marla). The conclusion is
C(Marla).
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Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
Problem: Show that the premises “A student in this
class has not read the book,” and “Everyone in this class
passed the first exam” imply the conclusion “Someone
who passed the first exam has not read the book.”
Solution: Let C(x) be “x is in this class,” B(x) be “x has
read the book,” and P (x) be “x passed the first exam.”
The premises are ∃x(C(x) ∧ ¬B(x)) and ∀x(C(x) → P
(x)).
The conclusion is ∃x(P (x) ∧ ¬B(x)). These steps can be
used to establish the conclusion from the premises.
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