Discrete Mathematics

and Its Applications

Sixth Edition
By Kenneth Rosen

Chapter 2
Basic Structures:
Sets, Functions,
Sequences, and Sums
歐亞書局 Copyright  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 2.1 Sets
2.2 Set Operations
2.3 Functions
2.4 Sequences and Summations

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 2.1 Sets

• Definition 1: A set is an unordered

collection of objects
• Definition 2: Objects in a set are called
elements, or members of the set.
– a A, a  A
– V = {a, e, i, o, u}
– O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
or O = {x|x is an odd positive integer less
than 10}
or O = {xZ+|x is odd and x<10}
– N={0, 1, 2, 3, …}, natural numbers
– Z={…,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}, integers
– Z+={1, 2, 3, …}, positive integers
– Q={p/q|pZ, qZ, and q0}, rational numbers
– Q+={xR|x=p/q, for positive integers p and q}
– R, real numbers
• Definition 3: Two sets are equal if and only
if they have the same elements.
A=B iff x(x  A  x  B)
• Venn diagram
– Universal set U
– Empty set (null set)  (or {})
 FIGURE 1 (2.1)

FIGURE 1 Venn Diagram for the Set of Vowels.

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• Definition 4: The set A is a subset of B if
and only if every element of A is also an
element of B.
A  B iff x(x  A  x  B)
• Theorem 1: For every set S,
(1)   S and (2) S  S.
• Proper subset: A  B
x(x  A  x  B)  x(x  B  x  A)
• If AB and BA, then A=B
• Sets may have other sets as members
– A={, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}
B={x|x is a subset of the set {a,b}}
– A=B
 FIGURE 2 (2.1)

FIGURE 2 Venn Diagram Showing that A Is a Subset of B.

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• Definition 5: If there are exactly n distinct
members in the set S (n is a nonnegative
integer), we say that S is a finite set and
that n is the cardinality of S.
|S|= n
– ||=0
• Definition 6: A set is infinite if it’s not
finite.
– Z+
 The Power Set

• Definition 7: The power set of S is the set of

all subset of the set S. P(S)
– P({0,1,2})
– P()
– P({})
• If a set has n elements, then its subset has
2n elements.
 Cartesian Products

• Definition 8: Ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, …, an) is the

ordered collection that has ai as its ith element
for i=1, 2, …, n.
• Definition 9: Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted by A  B, is the set of all ordered pairs
(a, b), where a  A and b  B.
A  B = {(a, b)| a  A  b  B}
– E.g. A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b, c}
– A  B and B  A are not equal, unless A= or B= or
A=B
• Definition 10: Cartesian product of A1, A2,
…, An, denoted by A1 A2  … An, is the
set of all ordered n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an),
where ai  Ai for i=1,2,…,n.
A1 A2  … An = {(a1, a2, …, an)| ai  Ai for
i=1,2,…,n}
• Using set notation with quantifiers
 xS (P(x)): x (xS  P(x))
 xS (P(x)): x (xS  P(x))
• Truth sets of quantifiers
– Truth set of P: {x  D | P(x)}
 2.2 Set Operations

• Definition 1: The union of the sets A and B,

denoted by AB, is the set containing
those elements that are either in A or in B,
or in both.
– AB={x|xA  xB}
• Definition 2: The intersection of the sets A
and B, denoted by AB, is the set
containing those elements in both A and B.
– A  B={x|xA  xB}
 Figure 1 (2.2)

FIGURE 1 Venn Diagram Representing the Union of A and B.

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 FIGURE 2 (2.2)

FIGURE 2 Venn Diagram Representing the Intersection of A and B.

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• Definition 3: Two sets are disjoint if their
intersection is the empty set.
• |AB|=|A|+|B|-| A  B |
– Principle of inclusion-exclusion
• Definition 4: The difference of the sets A and B,
denoted by A-B, is the set containing those
elements that are in A but not in B.
– Complement of B with respect to A
– A-B={x|xA  xB}
• Definition 5: The complement of the set A,
denoted by Ā, is the complement of A with
resepect to U.
– Ā = {x|xA}
 FIGURE 3 (2.2)

FIGURE 3 Venn Diagram for the Difference of A and B.

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 FIGURE 4 (2.2)

FIGURE 4 Venn Diagram for the Complement of the Set A.

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 Set Identities

• To prove set identities

– Show that each is a subset of the other
– Using membership tables
– Using those that we have already proved
 TABLE 1 (2.2)

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 TABLE 2 (2.2)

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 Generalized Unions and Intersections

• Definition 6: The union of a collection of sets is

the set containing those elements that are
members of at least one set in the collection.
n
– A1 A2  …  An = A i
i 1
• Definition 7: The intersection of a collection of
sets is the set containing those elements that are
members of all the sets in the collection.
n
– A1 A2  …  An = A i
i 1
• Computer Representation of Sets
– Using bit strings
 FIGURE 5 (2.2)

FIGURE 5 The Union and Intersection of A, B, and C.

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 2.3 Functions

• Definition 1: A function f from A to B is an

assignment of exactly one element of B to
each element of A. f: AB
• Definition 2: f: AB.
– A: domain of f, B: codomain of f.
– f(a)=b, a: preimage of b, b: image of a.
– Range of f: the set of all images of elements of
A
– f: maps A to B
 FIGURE 1 (2.3)

FIGURE 1 Assignment of Grades in a Discrete Mathematics Class.

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 FIGURE 2 (2.3)

FIGURE 2 The Function f Maps A to B.

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• Definition 3: Let f1 and f2 be functions from
A to R. f1+f2 and f1f2 are also functions from
A to R:
– (f1+f2)(x) = f1(x)+f2(x)
– (f1f2)(x)=f1(x)f2(x)
• Definition 4: f: AB, S is a subset of A.
The image of S under the function f is:
f(S)={t|sS(t=f(s))}
 One-to-One and Onto Functions

• Definition 5: A function f is one-to-one or injective,

iff f(a)=f(b) implies that a=b for all a and b in the
domain of f.
 ab( f(a)=f(b)  a=b ) or
ab( a  b  f(a)  f(b) )
• Definition 6: A function f is increasing if f(x)≤f(y),
and strictly increasing if f(x)<f(y) whenever x<y. f
is called decreasing if f(x)≥f(y), and strictly
decreasing if f(x)>f(y) whenever x<y.
 FIGURE 3 (2.3)

FIGURE 3 A One-to-One Function.

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 One-to-One and Onto Functions

• Definition 7: A function f is onto or

surjective, iff for every element bB there is
an element aA with f(a)=b.
 yx( f(x)=y ) or
ab( a  b  f(a)  f(b) )
• Definition 8 A function f is a one-to-one
correspondence or a bijection if it is both one-
to-one and onto.
– Ex: identity function ιA(x)=x
 FIGURE 4 (2.3)

FIGURE 4 An Onto Function.

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 FIGURE 5 (2.3)

FIGURE 5 Examples of Different Types of Correspondences.

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 Inverse Functions and Compositions of
Functions

• Definition 9: Let f be a one-to-one

correspondence from A to B. The inverse
function of f is the function that assigns to
an element b in B the unique element a in
A such that f(a)=b.
– f-1(b)=a when f(a)=b
 FIGURE 6 (2.3)

FIGURE 6 The Function f － 1

Is the Inverse of Function f.

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• Definition 10: Let g be a function from A
to B, and f be a function from B to C. The
composition of functions f and g, denoted
by f○g, is defined by:
– f○g(a) = f(g(a))
– f○g and g○f are not equal
 FIGURE 7 (2.3)

FIGURE 7 The Composition of the Functions f and g.

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 FIGURE 8 (2.3)

FIGURE 8 The Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 from Z to Z.

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 FIGURE 9 (2.3)

FIGURE 9 The Graph of f(x) = x2 from Z to Z.

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 Graphs of Functions

• Definition 11: The graph of function f is the

set of ordered pairs {(a,b)|aA and f(a)=b}
• Definition 12: The floor function assigns to
x the largest integer that is less than or
equal to x (x or [x]). The ceiling function
assigns to x the smallest integer that is
greater than or equal to x (x).
 FIGURE 10 (2.3)

FIGURE 10 Graphs of the (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions.

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 TABLE 1 (2.3)

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 2.4 Sequences and Summations

• Definition 1: A sequence is a function from

a subset of the set of integers to a set S. We
use an to denote the image of the integer n
(a term of the sequence)
– The sequence {an}
• Ex: an=1/n
• Definition 2: A geometric progression is a sequence
of the form
a, ar, ar2, …, arn, …
where the initial term a and the common ratio r are
real numbers
• Definition 3: A arithmetic progression is a
sequence of the form
a, a+d, a+2d, …, a+nd, …
where the initial term a and the common difference
d are real numbers
• Ex. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
• Ex. 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, …
• Ex. 1, 7, 25, 79, 241, 727, 2185, 6559, 19681,
59047, …
 TABLE 1 (2.4)

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 Summations

• Summation notation:
n

a j 
n
j m
aj 
1 j  n
aj
j m

– am+am+1+…+an
– j: index of summation
– m: lower limit
– n: upper limit
• Theorem 1 (geometric series): If a and r are
real numbers and r≠0, then
 ar n 1  a
n
 if r  1
 ar j
  r 1
j 0 (n  1 )a if r  1

– Proof
 TABLE 2 (2.4)

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 Cardinality

• Definition 4: The sets A and B have the same

cardinality iff there is a one-to-one
correspondence from A to B.
• Definition 5: A set that is either finite or has the
same cardinality as the set of positive integers is
called countable. A set that is not countable is
called uncountable. When an infinite set S is
countable, |S|=0‫“( א‬aleph null”)
– Ex: the set of odd positive integers is countable
 FIGURE 1 (2.4)

FIGURE 1 A One-to-One Correspondence Between Z+ and

the Set of Odd Positive Integers.

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 FIGURE 2 (2.4)

FIGURE 2 The Positive Rational Numbers Are Countable.

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Thanks for Your Attention!