ENVIRONMENTAL

SAMPLING APPROACHES
Important statistical terms
Population:
a set which includes all
measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all
responses, measurements, or
counts that are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
Sampling is the process by which a sample population
is reduced in size to an amount of homogeneous
material that can be conveniently handled in the lab
and whose composition is representative of the
population (unbiased estimate of population mean).
Ex.
Population : 100 coins
Each coin is a sampling unit or an
increment
Gross sample: 5 coins
the collection of individual
sampling units or increments
Lab sample : the gross sample is reduced in size
and made homogeneous
Why sampling?
Get information about large populations
 Less costs
 Less field time
 More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better Job of
Data Collection
 When it’s impossible to study the whole
population
 Classification of Sampling
Techniques

Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
Probability versus Nonprobability

 Probability Samples: each member of the

population has a known non-zero
probability of being selected
◦ Methods include random sampling, systematic
sampling, and stratified sampling.

 Nonprobability Samples: members are

selected from the population in some
nonrandom manner
◦ Methods include convenience sampling, judgment
sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample
of convenient elements. Often, respondents are
selected because they happen to be in the right
place at the right time.

◦ use of students, and members of social

organizations
◦ mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
◦ department stores using charge account lists
◦ “people on the street” interviews
JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING

 SUBJECTIVE SELECTION OF SAMPLING

LOCATIONS BASED ON PROFESSIONAL
JUDGEMENT USING PRIOR INFORMATION ON
THE SAMPLING SITE, VISUAL INSPECTIONS
(LEAK AND DISCOLORATION) AND/OR
PERSONAL KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE OF
THE RESEARCHER
JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

 THE PREFERRED SAMPLING APPROACH

WHEN…
1. SCHEDULE (SUCH AS FOR EMERGENCY SPILL
RESPONSE) AND BUDGET ARE TIGHT
2. AT THE EARLY STAGE OF SITE
INVESTIGATION
3. THE PROJECT OBJECTIVE IS TO SCREEN AN
AREA FOR THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF
CONTAMINATION
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted
judgmental sampling.
◦ The first stage consists of developing control categories, or
quotas, of population elements.
◦ In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Sex
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
____ ____ ____
100 100 1000
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of
respondents is selected, usually at random.

◦ After being interviewed, these respondents are

asked to identify others who belong to the target
population of interest.
◦ Subsequent respondents are selected based on
the referrals.
 Non probability samples

Probability of being chosen is unknown

Cheaper- but unable to generalise
potential for bias
Methods used in probability samples

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 THE ARBITRARY COLLECTION OF SAMPLES BY
A PROCESS THAT GIVES EACH SAMPLE UNIT IN
THE POPULATION THE SAME PROBABILITY OF
BEING CHOSEN
 Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling

Assumptions:
Every possible combination of sampling units has an equal
and independent chance of being selected.

The selection of a particular unit to be sampled is not

influenced by the other units that have been selected or will
be selected.

Samples are either chosen with replacement or without

replacement (terbatas)
Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling

Design:
 Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling
We use the familiar equations for estimating common statistics for the population

Estimate the population x 

mean: x   
 n 

Estimate the variance of 

  x 2   x 2 / n 
s 
2
individual values: 
 n 1 


Compute the coefficient s

of variation: CV   
x
 Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling

Compute the standard error:

s2 s2  N  n 
SE  OR SE   
n n  N 

(with replacement, or (without replacement and

infinite population) from a finite population)

Compute confidence limits:

t = t statistic from table,
95% CI  x  t SE determined by degrees of
freedom (n-1).

In general, it is safe to use: t = 2.0 for small n (n < 30), or t = 1.96 for large n (n > 30)
if you do not have access to a t-table.
N = Jumlah total populasi
n = Jumlah total sampel
Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling

How many samples to take?

• Sample size should be statistically and practically

efficient.

• Enough sample units should be measured to obtain the

desired level of precision (no more, no less).
 Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling

Determine sample size (withoout replacement, or finite population):

Knowing the coefficient of variation and that error is expected to be within x

% of the value of the mean, we use the following formula

1
n =  A 2 1
  
 tCV  N

where, n = required sample size, A = allowable error percent, t = t-value,

CV = coefficient of variation, and N = population size
Sampling Design I: Simple Random Sampling

Determine sample size (withoout replacement, or finite population):

Example using 0.10 ac fixed radius plots in a ten acre stand

Assume:
• We have calculated the CV and found it was 30%
• Our allowable error is +/- 10% of the mean
• Are using t-value of 2
• N is the total number of potential plots that could be placed in the
stand (i.e., population).
• In this case, N is stand size/plot size or 10/0.10 = 100

1
1 n= = 26
2
 10 
n =  A 2 1
1
  
 2 30  
     100
 tCV  N
Sampling Design II: Systematic Sampling

SELECTING SAMPLE UNITS ACCORDING TO

A SPECIFIED PATTERNS IN TIME OR SPACE
Sampling Design II: Systematic Sampling

Assumptions:

The initial sampling unit is randomly selected or

established on the ground. All other sample units are
spaced at uniform intervals throughout the area sampled.

Sampling units are easy to locate.

Sampling units appear to be representative of an area.

 Sampling Design II: Systematic Sampling

Design:
A Grid Scheme is most common

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

Sampling Design II: Systematic Sampling

Arguments:
For:
Regular spacing of sample units may yield efficient
estimates of populations under certain conditions.

*** Against:
Accuracy of population estimates can be low if there
is
periodic or cyclic variation inherent in the population.
Sampling Design II: Systematic Sampling

Arguments:
For:
There is no practical alternative to assuming that
populations are distributed in a random order across
the landscape.

Against:
Simple random sampling statistical techniques can’t
logically be applied to a systematic design unless
populations are assumed to be randomly distributed
across the landscape.
 Sampling Design II: Systematic Sampling

Summary:
We can (and often do) use systematic sampling to obtain estimates about the
mean of populations.

When an objective, numerical statement of precision is required, however, it

should be viewed as an approximation of the precision of the sampling effort.
(i.e. 95% confidence intervals)
 Stratified random sampling
Definition:
A stratified random sample is one obtained
by separating the population elements into
non-overlapping groups, called strata, and
then selecting a simple random sample from
each stratum.
 Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Assumptions:
A population is subdivided into subpopulations of known sizes.

A simple random sample of at least two units is drawn from each

subpopulation.

Why? To obtain a more precise estimate of the population mean. If the

variation within a subpopulation is small in relation to the total
population variance, the estimate of the population mean will be
considerably more precise than a simple random sample of the same size.

Why? To obtain an estimate of the resources within the subpopulations.

Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Design:
 Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Estimate the overall population mean:

Where:
 L 
L = number of strata   Nh y h 
y st   h 1 
Nh = total number of [area] units in strata h
N = total number of [area] units in all strata  N 
 
<< Essentially a weighted average >>  

We often use area for strata units (acres, hectares) in natural resource applications
Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Estimate the overall population mean:

Example: Strata acres mean

1 10 12.2
2 12 31.6
3 7 20.1

 (10)(12.2)  (12)(31.6)  (7)(20.1) 

y st     22.1 acres
 29 
 Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Estimate the overall population standard error of the mean:

1. First compute variance within each strata

   xh  xh  
2

sh   
2
 n  1 
 h 

Where: nh = total number of [tree] units sampled in strata h

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Estimate the overall population standard error of the mean:

2. Second, compute population standard error of the mean

 1   Nh sh 

L 2 2
(with replacement) SE st   2   
 N  h 1  nh 
OR

L 
 
1 N
2
s
2
 N h  nh  
(without replacement) SE st   2    h h   

 N  h 1  nh  N h 

Remember: N = [area] units, n = [tree] units

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements
 Sampling Design III: Stratified Random Sampling

Estimate the overall population standard error of the mean:

3. Compute confidence intervals if desired

Estimated confidence intervals:

y  t SE
st

FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements

 Cluster Sampling
• The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.
• Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability
sampling technique
• For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
(two-stage).
• Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but
clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally,
each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.
• In probability proportionate to size sampling, the clusters are
sampled with probability proportional to size. In the second stage, the
probability of selecting a sampling unit in a selected cluster varies
inversely with the size of the cluster.
 Types of Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling

One-Stage Two-Stage Multistage

Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Cluster Probability

Sampling Proportionate
to Size Sampling