Static and Dynamic Characteristics of an Instrument

S
Accuracy T
•Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness at A
T
which the instrument reading approaches the I
true value of the quantity to be measured. C
•Due to the effects of temperature, humidity the P
R
measured quantity varies from the true value O
•Accuracy is expressed in the “Percentage of Full- P
Scale Reading”, for instruments having a uniform E
R
scale.
T
•Specifying accuracy in terms of the percentage is I
better for the quantity being measured. E
S
Sensitivity Reproducibility
•In steady-state conditions,
Under variable operating
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of conditions, if the successive
a change in output to a change in measurements produce agreed
input. results for the same variables is
•For a given instrument, sensitivity
called Reproducibility.
can be derived as the smallest
change in the measured variable
•Sensitivity describes the maximum
change in an input signal that will
not initiate on the output.
•Note: The sensitivity of the
instrument should be high.
 Drift
Precision Error •Drift is defined as an unexpected change in the
•The precision error generated by output of a measured variable over some time
unrelated to a change in output operating
the limitation of a measuring conditions.
instrument. •Drift is caused by environmental factors such
•Since an operator evaluates a as mechanical vibrations, temperature
variation, stray electric fields, stray magnetic
consistent reading of 1.5 K ohms, fields, and thermal EMFs.
which is close to the true scale •A drift in instrument calibration occurs due to
though there is no deviation from the aging of parts.
•Drift in flow measurement occurs due to wear
the observed value. and tear of primary sensing elements such as
•The above example indicates that orifice plates.
conformity is required because of •Adrift in temperature measurement occurs
due to scale formation on the thermowell.
the lack of significant figures •Drift in Thermocouples or RTD occurs due to
obtained. the change of metallic properties of elements.
Dynamic Characteristics of an Instrument
Some of the dynamic characteristics of instruments are Dynamic Error, Response Speed,
Fidelity, Lag, Retardation Lag, and Time Delay Lag.

Dynamic Error
Dynamic Error is the variation between the true values of a
measurable quantity to the values indicated by the
measuring instrument which are affected by operating
conditions.
Response Speed
•Response Speed is defined as the rapidity of the
instrument to responds to the changes in the measuring
variable.
•It indicates how active and fast the system is.
Fidelity
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument
reproduces change in input faithfully without any dynamic error
Lag
•The lag time is taken by the system to respond, since every instrument takes at
least some time to respond, whatever time it may be to the changes in the
measured variable.
•For Example Lag occurs in temperature measurement by temperature sensors
such as Thermocouples or RTD or dial thermometers due to scale formation on
the thermowell due to the process fluid.
Retardation Lag
The response of the measurement begins immediately after the
change in measured quantity has occurred.
Time Delay Lag
In this case, after the application of input, the response of the
measurement system begins with some dead times.
Mass Flow Meters
Mass flow meters identify flow rate by directly
measuring fluid mass over a wide range of
temperatures with a high degree of accuracy. These
meters are suitable for a variety of fluids, such as
slurries and other viscous, nonconductive fluids
because of their ability to derive the concentration
and mass of fluids based on the density
measurement.
How Does a Mass Flow Meter Work?
The two flow technologies that are used to measure mass flow are inertial and
thermal. Inertia meters, known as Coriolis flow meters, use the Coriolis Effect to
measure mass flow rate. When a fluid is flowing in a pipe and it is subjected to
Coriolis acceleration through the mechanical introduction of apparent rotation
into the pipe, the amount of deflecting force generated by the Coriolis inertial
effect will be a function of the mass flow rate of the fluid.

Thermal mass flow meters also measure the mass flow rate of liquids and gases
directly and the function on the principles of heat transfer using a heating
element and temperature sensors.
Types of Mass Flow Meters
Coriolis Mass Flow Meters
Coriolis mass flow meters introduce an artificial Coriolis acceleration – an apparent
force that acts relative to a rotating frame – into the flowing stream and measure
mass flowrate by detecting the resulting angular momentum.

When a fluid is flowing in a pipe and it is subjected to Coriolis acceleration through

the mechanical introduction of apparent rotation into the pipe, the amount of
deflecting force generated by the Coriolis inertial effect will be a function of the
mass flow rate of the fluid.
Thermal Mass Flow Meters
Thermal mass flow meters also measure the mass flowrate of gases and liquids
directly. These meters operate either by introducing a known amount of heat into
the flowing stream and measuring an associated temperature change or by
maintaining a probe at a constant temperature and measuring the energy required
to do so. The components of a basic thermal mass flow meter include two
temperature sensors and an electric heater between them. The heater can protrude
into the fluid stream or can be external to the pipe
 What Are the Limitations of a Mass Flow Meter?
Common Mass Flow Meter Applications
Mass flow meters can have very high rangeability and high
Mass flow meters are used frequently in monitoring or
accuracy, but they also have serious limitations. Environmental
controlling mass-related processes (like chemical reactions)
variables and reading, calculation, and adjustment errors can
that depend on the relative masses of unreacted ingredients,
cause a decrease in efficiency, potential damage to equipment,
such as recipe formulations, material balance determinations,
and, ultimately, a reduction in accuracy.
and billing and custody transfer operations. As these are the
most critical flow measurements in a processing plant, the
Potential problems with mass flow meters include:
reliability and accuracy of mass flow measurement is very
•Coriolis mass flow meters require high flow velocities for
important.
detection – and this results in high pressure drops.
•Coriolis meters are expensive when compared with other flow
Coriolis mass flow meters are used in many different
meters. They are also not available for larger sized pipes.
applications in a wide variety of industries as well as in
•Thermal mass flow meters are affected by condensation of
scientific applications – measuring both corrosive and clean
moisture (in saturated gases) on the temperature detector –
gases and liquids. They provide high accuracy in mass flow
this will cause the thermometer to read low and can lead to
measurement density measurement, temperature
corrosion.
measurement, and viscosity. Thermal mass flow meters are
•Thermal mass flow meters are affected by coating or material
often used in monitoring or controlling mass-related processes
build-up on the sensor – this will inhibit heat transfer and cause
such as chemical reactions that depend on the relative masses
the meter to read low.
of unreacted ingredients.
•Thermal mass flow meters are affected by variations in the
specific heat caused by changes in the gas’s composition.
WHY MASS FLOW METERS?
The mass flow meter does not measure the volume per unit time (e.g., cubic meters per
second) passing through the device; it measures the mass per unit time (e.g., kilograms
per second) flowing through the device. Volumetric flow rate is the mass flow
rate divided by the fluid density. If the density is constant, then the relationship is
simple. If the fluid has varying density, then the relationship is not simple. The density
of the fluid may change with temperature, pressure, or composition, for example. The
fluid may also be a combination of phases such as a fluid with entrained bubbles. Actual
density can be determined due to dependency of sound velocity on the controlled liquid
concentration. If the fluid has varying density, then the relationship is not simple. The
density
of the fluid may change with temperature, pressure, or composition, for example. The
fluid may
also be a combination of phases such as a fluid with entrained bubbles. Actual density
can be
determined due to dependency of sound velocity on the controlled liquid concentration.
DENSITY AND VOLUME MEASURMENTS
The mass flow of a u-shaped coriolis flow meter is given as:
Where Ku is the temperature dependent stiffness of the tube, K a shape-dependent
factor, d the width, τ the time lag, ω the vibration frequency and Iu the inertia of the
tube. As the inertia of the tube depend on its contents, knowledge of the fluid density is
needed for the calculation of an accurate mass flow rate. If the density changes too often
for manual calibration to be sufficient, the coriolis flow meter can be adapted to
measure the density as well. The natural vibration frequency of the flow tubes depend on the
combined mass of the tube and the fluid contained in it. By setting the tube in motion and
measuring the natural frequency, the mass of the fluid contained in the tube can be
deduced. Dividing the mass on the known volume of the tube gives us the density of the
fluid. An instantaneous density measurement allows the calculation of flo w in volume
per time by dividing mass flow with density.