POWDER METALLURGY

MODULE 5A

BY
Dr. Aqueel Shah
Associate Professor, IMEM
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Introduction
 Advantages/Limitations
 PM Products
 PM Materials/Process Description
 PM Steps
 Powder manufacturing
 Mixing/blending
 Conventional pressing / compaction
 Conventional sintering
 Alternate methods to compact and sintering
 Tape casting , isostatic pressing, powder extrusion , powder rolling ,
injection molding
 Secondary operations in PM
 Economic and design guide lines
 Comparison with other manufacturing process
INTRODUCTION
 Powder metallurgy, or PM, is a process for forming metal parts by
heating compacted metal powders to just below their melting points.

 Although the process has existed for more than 100 years, over the
past quarter century it has become widely recognized as a superior
way of producing high-quality parts for a variety of important
applications.

 This success is due to the advantages the process offers over other
metal forming technologies such as forging and metal casting,
advantages in material utilization, shape complexity, near-net-shape
dimensional control, among others.
POWDER METALLURGY PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

Metal

Powder

Metal Product
POWDER METALLURGY ADVANTAGES
 PM parts can be fabricated to final or near-net shape, thereby eliminating or
reducing scrap metal, machining and assembly operation.

 High melting point metals and composite materials can be produced.

 PM is useful in making parts that have complex shapes or difficult to machine.

 Permits a wide variety of alloy systems.

 Provides materials which may be heat-treated for increased strength or

increased wear resistance.

 Provides controlled porosity for self-lubrication or filtration.

 Long term reliability through close control of dimensions and physical

properties.

 High production rate.

PM LIMITATIONS
 Porosity originates as the spaces between powder particles.

 High cost of powder material.

 Less strong parts.

 Relatively high die cost.

 High material cost.

 Design Limitations

 The mechanical properties of P/M materials are degraded by the

presence of pores.
EXAMPLES OF POWDER METAL PRODUCTS
 Gears

 Cams

 Cranks

 Bearings

 Roller bearing cages

 Housings

 Light bulb filaments

 Sprinkler mechanisms
PM PRODUCTS
PM PRODUCTS
PM PRODUCTS
PM PRODUCTS
PM PRODUCTS
POWDER METAL MATERIALS

Elemental
 A pure metal, most commonly iron, aluminum or copper

Pre alloyed
 An alloy of the required composition, most commonly
copper alloys, stainless steel or high-speed steel
PM BASIC PROCESS DESCRIPTION

 The component powders are mixed, together with lubricant, until a

homogeneous mix is obtained. The mix is then loaded into a die and
compacted under pressure, after which the compact is sintered.

 An exception is the process for making filter elements from spherical

bronze powder where no pressure is used; the powder being simply
placed in a suitably shaped mould in which it is sintered. This
process is known as loose powder sintering
POWDER METALLURGY PROCESS PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION
BASIC STEPS IN POWDER METALLURGY

 Powder Production

 Blending or Mixing

 Powder Consolidation

 Sintering

 Finishing Operation

 Lets examine these steps in detail in succeeding slides

POWDER PRODUCTION
POWDER PRODUCTION

 It involves the production of a fine metallic powder.

 Several techniques have been developed which permit large
production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable
control over the size ranges of the final grain population.

 There are four main processes used in powder production

 Solid-state reduction

 Atomization
 Electrolysis
 Chemical.
 However, atomization is widely used for powder production .
SOLID STATE REDUCTION

 This has been for long the most widely used method for the
production of iron powder. Selected ore is crushed, mixed with
carbon, and passed through a continuous furnace where reaction
takes place leaving a cake of sponge iron which is then further
treated by crushing, separation of non-metallic material, and sieve
to produce powder.

 Since no refining operation is involved, the purity of the powder is

dependent on that of the raw materials. The irregular sponge-like
particles are soft, and readily compressible, and give compacts of
good green strength.

 Refractory metals are normally made by hydrogen reduction of

oxides, and the same process can be used for copper .
PARTICLE SIZE REDUCTION
ATOMIZATION

 In this process molten metal is broken up into small droplets and

rapidly frozen before the drops come into contact with each other or
with a solid surface.

 The principal method is to disintegrate a thin stream of molten metal

by subjecting it to the impact of high energy jets of gas or liquid.

 Air, nitrogen and argon are commonly used gases, and water is the
liquid most widely used
Contd…

 By varying the several parameters: design and configurations of the

jets, pressure and volume of the atomizing fluid, thickness of the
stream of metal etc. - it is possible to control the particle size
distribution over a wide range.
 The particle shape is determined largely by the rate of solidification
and varies from spherical, if a low heat capacity gas is employed, to
highly irregular if water is used. In principle the technique is
applicable to all metals that can be melted, and is commercially
used for the production of iron, copper, including tool steels, alloy
steels, brass, bronze and the low-melting-point metals, such as
aluminum, tin, lead, zinc, cadmium.
 The readily oxidizable metals, for example chromium-bearing alloys,
are being automized on an increasing scale by means of inert gas,
specially argon
GAS ATOMIZATION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

PARTICLE SHAPE
DUE USE OF GAS
WATER ATOMIZATION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

PARTICLE SHAPE DUE USE OF WATER

CENTRIFUGAL ATOMIZATION
 There are basically two types of centrifugal atomization
processes:
 In one a cup of molten metal is rotated on a vertical axis at a speed sufficient to throw off
droplets of molten metal, or a stream of metal is allowed to fall on a rotating disc or cone;

 In the other a bar of the metal is rotated at high speed and the free end is progressively
melted e.g. by an electron beam or plasma arc
ELECTROLYSIS POWDER PRODUCTION

 By choosing suitable conditions - composition and strength of the

electrolyte, temperature, current density, etc., many metals can be
deposited in a spongy or powdery state.

 Extensive further processing - washing, drying, reducing, annealing

and crushing may be required.

 Copper is the main metal to be produced in this way but chromium

and manganese powders are also produced, by electrolysis. In these
cases, however, a dense and normally brittle deposit is formed and
requires to be crushed to powder.

 Electrolytic iron was at one time produced on a substantial scale but it

has been largely superseded by powders made by less costly
processes. Very high purity and high density are two distinguishing
features
ELECTROLYTIC CELL OPERATION PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION
POWDER CHARACTERISTICS
 The further processing and the final results achieved in the sintered
part are influenced by the characteristics of the powder:
 particle size,
 size distribution,
 particle shape,
 structure
 and surface condition.

 A very important parameter is the apparent density (AD) of the

powder, i.e. the mass of a given volume, since this strongly
influences the strength of the compact obtained on pressing. The
AD is a function of particle shape and the degree of porosity of the
particles
PARTICLE SHAPE
PARTICLE SIZE/CLASSIFICATION

The process of separating particles by size is called classification

PARTICLE SIZE

Micrograph of screened powder particles, showing that particles may be longer than the mesh is wide
PARTICLE SIZE
Mixing particles of different sizes allows decreased porosity and a higher packing ratio

void

smaller, more numerous voids

voids filled by smaller particles, small voids

remain
PARTICLE SIZE MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

 Particle size is measured by screening

 In addition to screen analysis one can use:

 Sedimentation – measuring the rate that particles settle in a fluid

 Microscopic analysis – using a scanning electron microscope

 Optical – particles blocking a beam of light that is sensed by a photocell

 Suspending particles in a liquid & detecting particle size and

distribution
TRADE OFF BETWEEN POWDER CHARACTERISTICS

 The choice of powder characteristics are normally based on

compromise, since many of the factors are in direct opposition to
each other:

 An increase in the irregularity and porous texture of the powder

grain, i.e. decrease in apparent density, increases the reduction in
volume that occurs on pressing and thus the degree of cold-welding,
which, in turn, gives greater green strength to the compact

 Additionally the greater reduction in volume necessary to give the

required green density may require greater pressure and
consequently larger presses and stronger dies. The ease and
efficiency of packing the powder in the die depends to a large extent
on a wide particle size distribution.
Contd…

 The ease and efficiency of packing the powder in the die depends to
a large extent on a wide particle size distribution so that the voids
created between large particles can be progressively filled with
those of smaller size.

 Fine particle sizes tend to leave smaller pores which are easily
closed during sintering.
METAL POWDER SHAPE SUMMARY
BLENDING OR MIXING
BLENDING OR MIXING

 Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction ensures that the

interstices between large particles will be filled out.

 Powders of different metals and other materials may be mixed in

order to impart special physical and mechanical properties through
metallic alloying.

 Lubricants may be mixed to improve the powders’ flow

characteristics.

 Binders such as wax or thermoplastic polymers are added to

improve green strength.

 Sintering aids are added to accelerate densification on heating .

BLENDING AND MIXING

Blending
 Combining powders of the same material but possibly different

particle sizes

Mixing
 Combining powders of different materials
BLENDING /MIXING DEVICES PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION
BLENDING POWDERS PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION


Some common equipment geometries for mixing or blending powders. (a)
cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double cone, and (d) twin shell.
POWDER MIXING MACHINE
MIXING/BLENDING MACHINE PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
 POWDER
CONSOLIDATION/COMPACTION
POWDER CONSOLIDATION/COMPACTION

 In the typical powder pressing process a powder compaction press is

employed with tools and dies.
 A die cavity that is closed on one end (vertical die, bottom end
closed by a punch tool) is filled with powder.
 The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected from
the die cavity. Various components can be formed with the powder
compaction process.
 The compaction step requires the part to be removable from the die
in the vertical direction with no cross movements of the tool
members.
 The pressing process bonds the powder particles together only
through mechanical clamping and cold welding.
 The pressed part thus formed, known as a green compact.
CONVENTIONAL PRESSING IN PM PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

Pressing in PM: (1)

filling die cavity with
powder by automatic
feeder; (2) initial and (3)
final positions of upper
and lower punches
during pressing, (4) part
ejection.
COMPACTION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
 High pressure is applied to squeeze the powder into the desired
shape
COMPACTING CYCLE PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
COMPACTION SUMMARY
Application of high pressure to the powders to form them into the
required shape

 Conventional compaction method is pressing, in which opposing

punches squeeze the powders contained in a die

 The work part after pressing is called a green compact, the word
green meaning not yet fully processed

 The green strength of the part when pressed is adequate for

handling but far less than after sintering
SINTERING
SINTERING
 Sintering is a heat treatment wherein the pressed parts gain strength.

 The most common sintering temperature range for iron-based alloys

is 1100 - 1250°C.

 The time for holding at this temperature varies between 10 and 60

minutes, depending on the application.


The most common type of furnaces is the mesh belt furnace.

 Components are placed on a tray, or directly on the mesh belt, which

transports them through the furnace.

 An atmosphere, which prevents oxidation, is necessary in the

sintering furnace.
CONTD…

 A sintering operation consists of de-waxing, sintering and cooling steps.

 In the de-waxing zone of the furnace, the lubricant is burned off.

 In the cooling zone of the sintering furnace, the parts are cooled under
protective atmosphere in order to prevent oxidation on contact with air.

 The cooling speed, especially in the range 850 - 500°C, also affects the
mechanical properties, due to phase transformations in the material.

 The main mechanisms of sintering are surface and volume diffusion.

SINTERING – PARTICLE BONDING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION
 Heats the powder below the melting point to allow solid-state
diffusion and bond the particles together
SINTERING PARTICLE BONDING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION
 Diagram of particles in sintering, showing the possible movements of atoms
LIQUID-PHASE SINTERING

 The presence of a liquid phase significantly increases the rate of

sintering. Thus this process is commonly used in industry for both
metal and ceramic alloys (e.g., cemented carbide cutting tools).
Substantially full densities can be obtained through good wetting of
the liquid on the solid particles, thus eliminating porosity.

 In this multistage process, the powder’s temperature is first raised

until the melting of one of the components. During this stage, solid
state sintering is already initiated. Subsequently, in the presence of
the liquid phase, densification occurs through rearrangements (due
to capillary forces), solution re-precipitation (i.e., grain growth), and
final solid-state sintering.
LIQUID PHASE SINTERING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
SINTERING TEMPERATURES AND TIME FOR DIFFERENT
METALS
SINTERING PRODUCTION LINES PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION
PICS OF SINTERING PRODUCTION LINES
SINTERING FURNACE
SINTERING STRENGTH RELATED TO DENSITY

Strength of sintered structures as related to density, showing

that the strength is higher when the density is higher (less
residual porosity)
OTHER PRESSING AND SINTERING
METHODS FOR METALLIC POWDER
ALTERNATIVES TO PRESSING AND SINTERING

 Conventional press and sinter sequence is the most widely used

shaping technology in powder metallurgy

 Additional methods for processing PM parts include:

 Slip Casting
Cold Isostatic Pressing

Hot Isostatic Pressing

Powder Extrusion

Injection Molding

Powder Rolling
SLIP CASTING

 Green compacts of tungsten, molybdenum, are made by this

process.

 A slurry mixture with metal powder is made.

 Plaster of Paris is poured.

 As mold is porous so the liquid drains off leaving a solid layer of

material on the surface.

 For hollow objects, upon drying green compacts are sintered.

SLIP CASTING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
ISOSTATIC PRESSING

 High pressures are used during compacting.

 Isostatic pressing means the pressure exerted is constant.

 Hydrostatic pressing means the pressure exerting medium is liquid.

 In Isostatic pressing, the powder is sealed in an elastic mould and is

subjected to the hydrostatic pressure.

 Two types of Isostatic molding are there

 (A) Cold Isostatic Pressing

 (B) Hot Isostatic Pressing
COLD ISOSTATIC PRESSING
 CIP is a process in which powder materials are pressed at room
temperature.

 It is the most important compaction method in powder metallurgy.

 Metal powder is placed in a rubber mold.

 It is then pressurized hydrostatically in a chamber with pressure up

to 400 MPa & then sintered.
 COLD ISOSTATIC PRESSING PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

 Schematic diagram, of cold isostatic, as applied to forming a tube.The

powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid core rod.Pressure
is applied iso-statically to the assembly inside a high-pressure chamber.
COLD ISOSTATIC PRESSING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION
HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING
 HIP involves Isostatic pressing at elevated temperatures.

 As a pressure medium a gas (Argon) is used.

 The work pressures, which are applied in the hot Isostatic pressing
method, are commonly b/w 100 MPa to 300 MPa.

 HIP combines pressing and sintering, causing consolidation of powder

particles, healing voids and pores.

 The part shrinks and densifies, forming sound high strength structure.
 HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

 The sintered (but still porous) part is then pressed Isostatically at

high temperature without any can (mold).
 HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

 Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing. The pressure and

temperature variation vs.time are shown in the diagram
PICTURE OF AN ISOSTATIC PRESS
ISOSTATIC PRESSING SUMMARY
 Uses pressurized fluid to compress the powder equally in all
directions
 Cold Isostatic Pressing
Compaction performed at room temperature
 Hot Isostatic Pressing
Performed at high temperatures and pressures
PM MANUFACTURING SUMMARY USING HOT
ISOSTATIC PROCESS
POWDER EXTRUSION

Extrusion is one of the basic manufacturing processes.

In powder metallurgy extrusion, the starting powders
can be in different forms. Powders are placed in a
vacuum-tight sheet metal can, heated and extruded with
the container. In other variation, billets are made with
conventional press and sinter process and then the billet
is hot-extruded. These methods achieve a high degree of
densification in the PM product.
POWDER EXTRUSION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION -I
 Powders are placed in vacuum tight sheet can, heated and extruded
with container
POWDER EXTRUSION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION-II
 The powder can be extruded within a container or after being
formed into billets using conventional compaction and sintering
POWDER ROLLING
POWDER ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

 Powder is compressed in a rolling mill to form a strip

METAL INJECTION MOLDING
 The processing technology comprises the following stages:
 Mixing the fine metallic powder with 30% - 40% of a binder – low melt
polymer.

 Injection of the warm powder with molten binder into the mold by means of
the screw.

 Removal of the part from the mold after cooling down of the mixture.

 De-binding – removal of the binder. There are two de-binding methods:

 solvent debinding – the binder is dissolved by a solvent or by water;

 thermal debinding – the binder is heated above the volatilization

temperature.

 Sintering the “green” compact

METAL INJECTION MOLDING
 The powder is mixed with a binder and molded, and the binder is
removed before sintering
FINISHING OPERATIONS

Finishing operations include:

 Machining

 Heat Treatment

 Calibration

 Infiltration

 Oil Impregnation

 Sizing and Coining

 Joining
MACHINING
 Wherever possible final machining operations are avoided to reduce
costs.

 However there are features, such as re-entrant angles and cross

holes, that cannot be developed in the pressed component and must
be produced by machining, usually after final sintering.

 In some cases, where the fully sintered material is too strong to

machine economically, the part is pre-sintered to give some strength,
machined and then fully sintered to fully develop the properties.

 Where possible the material composition is altered to enhance its

machine ability.
HEAT TREATMENT

 Powder metallurgy components are usually heat treated, to develop

the desired mechanical properties.

 However, it is important to remember that there is interconnected

porosity in the components and that any gaseous process could well
affect the core of the material as well as the external surface.

 The usual processes of carburizing, nitro-carburizing, carbo-nitriding,

etc can be carried out to provide hardened surfaces.

 Heat treatment induces considerable corrosion resistance, increased

hardness, increased resistance to compressive strength, and
improved wear resistance.
CALIBRATION

 During calibration the sintered component is re-pressed in a

calibration tool similar to the pressing tool at pressures of 60 to 80
kN/cm2.

 This improves the mechanical properties through strain hardening, in

addition to the dimensional accuracy and surface quality.

 Especially softer materials can be improved significantly through

calibration.
INFILTRATION
 Infiltration is a secondary process step used to either improve
strength or seal parts and make them gas- or liquid-tight. e.g. copper-
based alloys infiltrate ferrous parts, usually during the sintering
phase.

 Infiltration makes the components impermeable and there is some

increase in mechanical properties, but at expense of dimensional
accuracy.


Infiltration simplifies some heat treatments.

 For instance, it is easier to obtain a defined case depth without

interconnected porosity.
OIL IMPREGNATION

 Sintered parts achieve greater protection against corrosion by being

impregnated by oil or other non-metallic material.

 Self-lubricating bearings are manufactured by impregnating porous

sintered bearings with lubricants and these bearings can only be
produced by powder metallurgy.

 Through oil impregnation, used on PM self-lubricating bearing

components, components can absorb 12% –30% oil by volume.

 Oil impregnation can also be performed on PM components to

improve machine ability or to prepare the surface for plating.
 Metal filters
OIL IMPREGNATED PRODUCTS

Oil-impregnated Porous Bronze Bearings nic.sav.sk

www.ondrives.com

www.hd-bearing.com
VACUUM OIL IMPREGNATION
SIZING AND COINING
 Sizing and coining are additional press operations after sintering.

 The main objective is to improve the dimensional accuracy, but the

surface finish is also normally improved.

 Quite moderate pressures are normally required for sizing, since only
a slight plastic deformation is necessary.


Coining has a double purpose.

 Not only is dimensional accuracy improved, but the use of higher

pressures also increases the density of the part.

 Normally, a press tool specific to the task of sizing or coining is used.

FINISHING OPERATION SUMMARY
PM PROCESS SUMMARY
PRODUCTION/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES FOR PM
 Economics usually require large quantities to justify cost of
equipment and special tooling
 Minimum quantities of 10,000 units are suggested

 PM is unique in its capability to fabricate parts with a controlled level

of porosity
 Porosities up to 50% are possible

 PM can be used to make parts out of unusual metals and alloys ‑

materials that are difficult if not impossible to produce by other
means
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR PM PARTS -
 Part geometry must permit ejection from die

 Part must have vertical or near vertical sides, although steps are
allowed

 Design features like holes and undercuts on part sides must be

avoided

 Vertical undercuts and holes are permissible because they do not

interfere with ejection

 Vertical holes can have cross-sectional shapes other than round

without significant difficulty
SIDE HOLES AND UNDERCUTS

 Part features to be avoided in PM: side holes and (b) side

undercuts since part ejection is impossible.
CHAMFERS AND CORNER RADII

 Chamfers and corner radii are accomplished but certain rules

should be observed: (a) avoid acute angles; (b) larger angles
preferred for punch rigidity; (c) inside radius is desirable; (d) avoid
full outside corner radius because punch is fragile at edge; (e)
problem solved by combining radius and chamfer.
PM COMPARISON WITH OTHER MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
POWDER METALLURGY: CONNECTING RODS

www.dps-performance.com

Forged on left; P/M on right

POWDERED METAL TRANSMISSION GEAR

www.chipm.com

 Warm compaction method with 1650-ton press

 Teeth are molded net shape: No machining
 UTS = 155,000 psi
 30% cost savings over the original forged part
POWDERED METAL TURBINE BLADE-DISK 1 PIECE!
PM SUMMARY
PM ENDS HERE