Chapter 2

Fluid statics

1
 Introduction

Fluid Mechanics

Gas Liquids Statics Dynamics

F  0i  F  0 , Flows
i

Air, He, Ar, Water, Oils, Stability

N2, etc. Alcohols, etc. Pressure Buoyancy Compressible/
Incompressible
Surface Laminar/

Tension Turbulent
Compressibility Density Viscosity Steady/Unsteady
Viscous/Inviscid

Chapter 1: Introduction Fluid Dynamics:

Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Rest chapters

2
Fluid Statics is a branch of fluid mechanics that concerned on the
behavior of fluids at rest.
There is no relative motion between adjacent particles, so that there is no
shear stress only pressure force is experienced/exist.
Hydrostatic condition: when the fluid velocity is zero, this is denoted
as a hydrostatic condition. The pressure variation is only due to the
weight of the fluid.
Pressure
It is defined as the force per unit area. Standard atmospheric pressure has
the following equivalent values:

3
 Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by atmospheric air upon air surface in
contact.
Absolute pressure: Any pressure measured above the absolute zero of
pressure is termed as an ‘absolute pressure’.
Gage pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
Vacuum pressure: is the pressure below atmospheric pressure and is
measured by vacuum gages.

4
 Pascal’s Law and it’s application
 It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point is a static fluid is equal in
all directions.
 The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the hydrostatic law which
states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction
must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
 The hydraulic jack is such a hydraulic system. A hydraulic jack is used to lift heavy
loads, such as the ones used by auto mechanics to raise an automobile.
 It consists of an incompressible fluid in a U-tube fitted with a movable piston on
each side. One side of the U-tube is narrower than the other.
 A small force applied over a small area can balance a much larger force on the other
side over a larger area.

5
 Pressure at a point
The normal stress on any plane through a fluid element at rest is a point
property called the fluid pressure p, taken positive for compression by
common convention.
It creates a force, due to fluid molecules bombarding the surface, and it is
normal to that surface.

 Consider a mall wedge

of fluid element at rest
of size Δx by Δz by Δs
and depth b.

6
Cont…
The element is assumed to be small, so the pressure is constant on
each face.
Summation of forces must equal zero (no acceleration) in both the x
and z directions.

7
Cont…
These relations illustrate two important principles of the hydrostatic,
or shear-free, condition:
1. There is no pressure change in the horizontal direction.
2. There is a vertical change in pressure proportional to the density,
gravity, and depth change.
In the limit as the fluid wedge shrinks to a “point,” Δz→0 and Eq.
(2.3) become:

Therefore it can be conclude that the pressure p in a static fluid is a

point property, independent of orientation.

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 Pressure Force on a Fluid Element
how does the pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing stresses vary
from point to point? Pressure causes a net force on a fluid element.
The pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing stresses varies from
point to point.

Consider a small cubic element of fluid removed from some arbitrary position
within the mass of fluid interest as illustrated in Fig below;
 There are two types of forces acting on
this element:
surface forces due to the pressure and a body
force equal to the weight of the element.

Fig: Surface and body forces acting on small fluid element

9
Cont…
The net force in the y direction on the element is given by:

In like manner the net force involves -∂p/∂x and the net force concerns
-∂p/∂z.
The total net-force vector on the element due to pressure is

The net force per unit element volume (f) becomes:

where

Thus it is not the pressure but the pressure gradient causing a net force that
10
Cont…
The pressure gradient is a surface force that acts on the sides of the
element. There may also be a body force, due to electromagnetic or
gravitational potentials, acting on the entire mass of the element.
Here we consider only the gravity force, or weight of the element:

Since the z axis is vertical, the weight of the element is

where the -ve sign indicates that the force due to the weight is downward (in
the negative z direction). Newton’s second law, applied to the fluid element,
can be expressed as
or
and, therefore,

The general equation of motion for a fluid in which there are no

11
Cont…
In addition to gravity, a fluid in motion will have surface forces due to
viscous stresses.
Thus sum of these per-unit-volume forces equals the mass per unit
volume (density) times the acceleration a of the fluid element:

12
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions)
If the fluid is at rest or at constant velocity, a = 0 and fvisc = 0. then
Equation (2.8) for the pressure distribution reduces to:

or in component form
This is a hydrostatic distribution and is correct for all fluids at rest,
regardless of their viscosity.
Thus Eq. (2.9) These equations show that the pressure does not depend
on x or y since p depends only on z.
 Hence ∂p/∂z can be replaced by the total derivative dp/dz , and the
hydrostatic condition reduces to:

or or or
The maximum pressure increase will be in the direction of gravity that is,
“down”. Thus the local-gravity vector in upward z direction is:

where g is the magnitude of local gravity, for example, 9.807 m/. 13

Cont…
Conclusions about a hydrostatic condition:
Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only
with vertical distance and is independent of the shape of the
container.
The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in
the fluid.
The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.

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 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids/Incompressible Fluid
Liquids are so nearly incompressible, so that neglect their density
variation in hydrostatics.
Thus Eq. (2.10) integrates to: where p1 and p2 are pressures at the
vertical elevations z1 and z2 can be written in the
compact form

or
Fig: Notation for pressure variation in a fluid at rest with a free surface

The quantity γ is called the specific weight of the fluid, with

dimensions of weight per unit volume.
where h is the distance, which is the depth of fluid measured downward
from the location of p2. This type of pressure distribution is commonly
called a hydrostatic distribution
shows that in an incompressible fluid at rest the pressure varies
linearly with depth. 15
Cont…
The quantity p1- p2/γ=h is a length called the pressure head of the
fluid.
The reference pressure po would correspond to the pressure acting on
the free surface (which would frequently be atmospheric pressure), and
thus if we let p2=po the pressure p at any depth h below the free surface
is given by the equation:

There for the pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest

depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference plane.

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Cont…

17
Cont…
For lakes and oceans, with z = 0 at the free surface, where p equals
the surface atmospheric pressure.
When we introduce the reference value ( ) = ( , 0), Eq. (2.14)
becomes, for p at any (negative) depth z:

where γ is the average

specific weight of the
lake or ocean.

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 Compressible Fluid/ Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases
Due to gases are compressible, its density varies and results change
in pressure, which introduces the perfect-gas law;
; when we relate this to Eq. (2.12)

; integrate between points 1 and 2:

The integral over z requires an assumption about the temperature

variation T(z).
For example, if we assume that the temperature has a constant value
To over the range z1to z2 (isothermal conditions),
One common approximation is the isothermal atmosphere, where 19
Eq. (2.17) becomes:
Cont…

But atmospheric temperature drops off nearly linearly with z up to an

altitude of about 36,000 ft (11,000 m):

Here is sea-level temperature (absolute) and B is the lapse rate.

By international agreement the following standard values are assumed to
apply from 0 to 36,000 ft:

Introducing Eq. (2.19) into Eq. (2.17) and integrating;

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 Manometry
 Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in
a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid.
 From the hydrostatic formula (Eq. 2.14), a change in elevation of a liquid is
equivalent to a change in pressure ()/γ.
 Thus a static column of one or more liquids or gases can be used to measure
pressure differences between two points. Such a device is called manometer.
 Consider a multiple fluid column as show below;

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Cont…
Due to density variation from fluid to fluid, the pressure change
through each fluid is calculated separately.
Total change in pressure:

Consider a simple
manometer the gage
pressure PA relative
to atmosphere Pa is:

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Cont…
Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous mass of the
same static fluid will be at the same pressure.
Consider a complicated manometer as shown below, the pressure
difference b/n chamber A and B is:

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Examples

26
Examples

26
CONT…

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 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
Consider a submerged plane surface which is inclined, as is illustrated in
Fig. To determination of the resultant force acting on the surface let’s
assume that the fluid surface is open to the atmosphere. Let the plane in
which the surface lies intersect the free surface at 0 and make an angle with
this surface. The x–y coordinate system is defined so that 0 is the origin and
y =0 (i.e., the x axis) is directed along the surface as shown.
The area can have an arbitrary
shape as shown. We wish to
determine the location, and
magnitude of the resultant force
acting on one side of this area due
to the liquid in contact with the
area. At any given depth, h, the
force acting on dA (the differential
area is is perpendicular to
the surface. Thus, the magnitude of
the resultant force can be found by
summing these differential forces
over the entire surface.
27
Cont…
The resultant force of a static fluid on a plane surface is due to the
hydrostatic pressure distribution on the surface.
For the present we will assume that the fluid surface is open to the
atmosphere.
If h is the depth to any element area dA of the plate, thus, the
magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing these
differential forces over the entire surface.
where For constant

The integral appearing in the above equation is the first moment of the
area with respect to the x axis,

where is the coordinate of the centroid of area A measured from the x

axis which passes through 0. 28
Cont…
Therefore, the above Eq. becomes:
or
Therefore the magnitude of the resultant fluid force is equal to the
pressure acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total area.
Where is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of
the area.
The moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the
distributed pressure force,
and, therefore, since

The integral in the numerator is the second moment of the area

(moment of inertia), with respect to an axis formed by the intersection
of the plane containing the surface and the free surface (x axis). Thus,
we can write
29
Cont…
Use can now be made of the parallel axis theorem to express as

where is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing
through its centroid and parallel to the x axis. Thus,

The x coordinate, for the resultant force can be determined in a similar

manner by summing moments about the y axis. Thus,
and, therefore,

where is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes. Again,
using the parallel axis
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theorem, we can write
Cont…
where is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and formed
by a translation of the x–y coordinate system.
The point through which the resultant force acts is called the center
of pressure.
In most cases the ambient pressure Pa is neglected because it acts on
both sides of the plate; for example, the other side of the plate is
inside a ship or on the dry side of a gate or dam.

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Centroidal moments of inertia for various cross sections 32
Cont…

33
Cont…

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 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Consider a curved portion of the swimming pool shown in Fig.
We wish to find the resultant fluid force acting on section BC (which has a unit
length perpendicular to the plane of the paper) The forces represent the
components of the force that the tank exerts on the fluid.
Summation of vertical forces on the fluid free body then shows that:

 The forces and represent the

components of the force that the tank
exerts on the fluid.
and the magnitude of the resultant is
obtained from the equation

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CONT…

35
CONT…

35
CONT…
CONT…
A 6-ft-diameter drainage conduit of the type shown in Fig. is half full
of water at rest,
Determine the magnitude and line of action of the resultant force that
the water exerts on a 1-ft length of the curved section BC of the
conduit wall.
Solution

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Cont…

36
Cont…

37
Cont…

38
Cont…

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 Buoyancy and Stability
 The tendency of an immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid due to an upward
force opposite action of gravity is known as buoyancy.
 The force that tends to lift the body when it immersed in to a liquid is called the
buoyant force or (is the net upward force on any object in any fluid) and is denoted
by FB.
 Center of buoyancy: is the point of application of the force of buoyancy on the
body.
 Two Archimedes laws of buoyancy:
1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal to the
weight of the fluid it displaces.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats.

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Cont…

Forces on upper and lower curved surfaces

Summation of elemental vertical-pressure forces

41
Cont…
The buoyancy force becomes:

Static equilibrium of a floating body

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Cont… Example

43
Cont…
Example

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 Stability
Stability: is the state of being stable.
 The stability of a body can be determined by considering what
happens when it is displaced from its equilibrium position.
 We use the classic “ball on the floor” analogy to explain the
fundamental concepts of stability and instability. Shown in Fig.
are three balls at rest on the floor.
Case (a) is stable since any small disturbance (someone
moves the ball to the right or left) generates a restoring force
(due to gravity) that returns it to its initial position.
Case (b) is neutrally stable because if someone moves the
ball to the right or left, it would stay put at its new location.
It has no tendency to move back to its original location, nor
does it continue to move away.
Case (c) is a situation in which the ball may be at rest at the
moment, but any disturbance, even an infinitesimal one,
causes the ball to roll off the hill—it does not return to its
original position; rather it diverges from it. This situation is
unstable
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Cont…
 The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on the relative locations of
the center of gravity G of the body and the center of buoyancy B, which is the
centroid of the displaced volume.
 The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on the relative locations of
the center of gravity G of the body and the center of buoyancy B, which is the
centroid of the displaced volume.
 An immersed body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus point G is
directly below point B. A rotational disturbance of the body in such cases produces
a restoring moment to return the body to its original stable position.
 An immersed body whose center of gravity G is directly above point B is unstable,
and any disturbance will cause this body to turn upside down.

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 Types of equilibrium of floating bodies
The equilibrium of floating bodies is of the following types:
1. Stable equilibrium,
2. Unstable equilibrium, and
3. Neutral equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium
When a body is given a small angular displacement (i.e. tilted slightly), by some
external force, and then it returns back to its original position due to the internal forces
(the weight and the upthrust), such an equilibrium is called stable equilibrium.

Unstable Equilibrium
If the body does not return to its original position from the slightly displaced angular
position and heels farther away, when given a small angular displacement, such an
equilibrium is called an unstable equilibrium.

Neutral Equilibrium
If a body, when given a small angular displacement, occupies a new
position and remains at rest in this new position, it is said to possess a
neutral equilibrium 51
 Meta-Center
It is the point of intersection of the vertical line to the new center of
buoyancy B when the body is given a small angular displacement and
center line BG is known as metacenter.
The distance between the center of gravity of a floating body and the
metacenter is called metacentric height.
Stability of equilibrium of a floating body depends on the location of
its metacenter.
A floating body is stable if the
body is (a) bottom-heavy and
thus the center of gravity G is
below the centroid B of the body,
or
(b) if the metacenter M is above
point G.
However, the body is
(c) unstable if point M is below
point G. 44
 Cont…
 A body for which G and B coincide is neutrally stable.
 When M coincides with G then line of buoyancy force and weight of
the body are collinear then the body neither return to the original
position nor displaced further thus the body is in neutral equilibrium.
Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion
In rigid-body motion, all particles are in combined translation and
rotation, and there is no relative motion between particles.
Relations of pressure, gravity, and particle acceleration:

47
Cont…
Consider a container partially filled with a liquid. The container is
moving on a straight path with a constant acceleration.
 There is no movement in the y-direction, and thus the acceleration in
that direction is zero, ay =5.
The change in pressure
between two closely spaced
points located at y, z, and can
be expressed as

Along a line of constant pressure dp=0 it follows that the slope of this
line is given by the relationship
49
Cont…


51
Cont…

52
Cont…

53
 Rigid-Body Rotation about the z axis without any translation
Consider a vertical cylindrical container partially filled with a
liquid. The container is now rotated about its axis at a constant
angular velocity of v, as shown in Fig.
After initial transients, the liquid will move as a rigid body together
with the container. There is no deformation, and thus there can be
no shear stress, and every fluid particle in the container moves with
the same angular velocity.
This problem is best analyzed in cylindrical
coordinates with z taken along the
centerline of the container directed from the
bottom toward the free surface, since the
shape of the container is a cylinder, and
the fluid particles undergo a circular motion.

54
Cont…
• The centripetal acceleration of a fluid particle rotating
with a constant angular velocity of at a distance r from
the axis of rotation is and is directed radially toward the
axis of rotation.
• Then the equation of motion for accelerating fluids

• Then the total differential of which is

• The equation for surfaces of constant pressure is obtained by

setting dP=0

• Integration of this result gives the equation for surfaces of

constant pressure as
54
Cont…

For the free surface, setting r=0

Where is the distance of the free surface from the bottom of the container along the axis
of rotation then the equation for the free surface becomes

where is the distance of the free surface from the bottom of the container at radius r.

Since mass is conserved and density is constant, this volume must be equal to the original
volume of the fluid in the container, which is

54
 Cont…
• Then the equation of the free surface becomes

54
Cont…
A 20-cm-diameter, 60-cm-high vertical cylindrical container, shown in
Fig., is partially filled with 50-cm-high liquid whose density is 850
kg/m3. Now the cylinder is rotated at a constant speed. Determine the
rotational speed at which the liquid will start spilling from the edges of
the container.
Assumptions; 1. The increase in the rotational
speed is very slow so that the liquid in the
container always acts as a rigid body.
2. The bottom surface of the container remains
covered with liquid during rotation (no dry
spots).
• Taking the center of the bottom surface of
the rotating vertical cylinder as the origin
(r=0, z=0), the equation for the free surface
of the liquid is given as
54
Cont…

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 Summary
 Introduction
 Pressure specification
Pressure at a point
Pressure force on fluid element
 Hydrostatic pressure distributions
Hydrostatic pressure in liquids
Hydrostatic pressure in gases
 Manometer
 Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces
 Hydrostatic forces on curved surfaces
 Buoyancy and Stability
 Pressure variation with rigid body motion 58
 Quiz 1
1. Explain how the temperature affect the viscosity of fluids.
2. Describe how surface tension created
3. Drive the expression (equation) for capillary rise
4. Sketch and indicate flow patterns
5. List at least five application area of fluid mechanics
6. State Newton’s law of viscosity
7. Write the difference between adhesive and cohesive forces

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THANK YOU !!!