Signal Conditioning

and
Data Representation
 signal conditioning/processing

Digital Signal Processors (DSP) take real-world signals like voice, audio, video,
temperature, pressure, or position that have been digitized and then
mathematically manipulate them. A DSP is designed for performing
mathematical functions like "add", "subtract", "multiply" and "divide" very
quickly.
• Signals need to be processed so that the information that
they contain can be displayed, analyzed, or converted to
another type of signal that may be of use.
• In the real-world, analog products detect signals such as
sound, light, temperature or pressure and manipulate
them. Converters such as an Analog-to-Digital converter
then take the real-world signal and turn it into the digital
format of 1's and 0's.
• From here, the DSP takes over by capturing the digitized
information and processing it. It then feeds the digitized
information back for use in the real world. It does this in
one of two ways, either digitally or in an analog format by
going through a Digital-to-Analog converter.
• All of this occurs at very high speeds.
Operational Amplifiers (Op-amp)
• Operational Amplifiers are represented both
schematically and realistically below:
– Active component!
 Why are they useful?

• Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy

– Op Amps ideally increase the signal amplitude
without affecting its other properties
 How are Op-Amps used?

• Comparator
• Voltage follower
• Signal Modulation
• Mathematical Operations
• Filters
• Voltage-Current signal conversion
Non-inverting Op-Amp

Uses: Amplify…straight up
Inverting Op-Amp

Uses: Analog inverter

 Summation

Uses: Add multiple sensors inputs until a

threshold is reached.
Difference

V 2 R3  R1 R4 V1 R3
Vout  
( R4  R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal:

Vout  V2  V1
Difference

V 2 R3  R1 R4 V1 R3
Vout  
( R4  R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal:

Vout  V2  V1
 Integrating Op-Amp

www.wikipedia.org

Uses: PID Controller

 Differentiating Op-Amp

(where Vin and Vout are functions of time)

 Analogue to digital converters
• Microcontrollers are capable of detecting binary signals: is
the button pressed or not? These are digital signals.
• When a microcontroller is powered from five volts, it
understands zero volts (0V) as a binary 0 and a five volts
(5V) as a binary 1.
• The world however is not so simple and likes to use
shades of gray. What if the signal is 2.72V? Is that a zero or
a one? We often need to measure signals that vary; these
are called analog signals. A 5V analog sensor may output
0.01V or 4.99V or anything inbetween.
• Luckily, nearly all microcontrollers have a device built into
them that allows us to convert these voltages into values
that we can use in a program to make a decision.
 • What is the ADC?
• An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is a very useful
feature that converts an analog voltage on a pin to a
digital number. By converting from the analog world
to the digital world, we can begin to use electronics
to interface to the analog world around us.
• This is really an electronic integrated circuit which
directly converts the continuous form of signal to
discrete form. It can be expressed as A/D or A-to-D
or A-D or ADC. The input (analog) to this system can
have any value in a range and are directly
measured. But for output (digital) of an N-bit A/D
converter, it should have only 2N discrete values.
 ADC conversion process

There are mainly two steps involves in the process of

conversion. They are-
1. Sampling and Holding
2. Quantizing and Encoding
Quantizing:
It is the process in which the reference signal is partitioned
into several discrete quanta and then the input signal is
matched with the correct quantum.
• Encoding:
Here; for each quantum, a unique digital code will be
assigned and after that the input signal is allocated with
this digital code. The process of quantizing and encoding
is demonstrated in the table below.
 Digital-Analog Convertors
• A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts
a digital input signal into an analog output
signal. The digital signal is represented with a
binary code, which is a combination of bits 0
and 1.
 What is a DAC?
• A digital to analog converter (DAC) converts a digital
signal to an analog voltage or current output.

100101…
DAC
 Types of DACs
• Many types of DACs available.
• Usually switches, resistors, and op-amps used
to implement conversion
• Two Types:
– Binary Weighted Resistor
– R-2R Ladder
 Binary Weighted Resistor
• Utilizes a summing op-amp circuit
• Weighted resistors are used to distinguish
each bit from the most significant to the least
significant
• Transistors are used to switch between Vref and
ground (bit high or low)
 Binary Weighted Resistor
• Assume Ideal Op-amp
Vref
• No current into op-amp
• Virtual ground at R

inverting input 2R I Rf

• Vout= -IRf 4R
- Vout
+
2n R
 Binary Weighted Resistor
Voltages V1 through Vn are either Vref
Vref
if corresponding bit is high or ground V1 R
if corresponding bit is low
V2 2R I Rf
V1 is most significant bit
V3 4R
- Vout
Vn is least significant bit
+
Vn 2n-1R

MSB

LSB
 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout   IRf   Rf      n -1 
 R 2R 4R 2 R
 Binary Weighted Resistor

If Rf=R/2
 V1 V2 V3 Vn 
Vout   IRf       n 
2 4 8 2 
For example, a 4-Bit converter yields

 1 1 1 1
Vout  Vref  b3  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8 16 
Where b3 corresponds to Bit-3, b2 to Bit-2, etc.
 Binary Weighted Resistor
• Advantages
– Simple Construction/Analysis
– Fast Conversion
• Disadvantages
– Requires large range of resistors with necessary high
precision for low resistors
– Requires low switch resistances in transistors
– Can be expensive. Therefore, usually limited to 8-bit
resolution.
Filters
 Opto-isolators
• An optoisolator (also known as optical
coupler, optocoupler and opto-isolator) is a
semiconductor device that uses a short optical
transmission path to transfer an electrical signal
between circuits or elements of a circuit, while
keeping them electrically isolated from each other.
• These components are used in a wide variety of
communications, control and monitoring systems
that use light to prevent electrical high voltage
from affecting a lower power system receiving a
signal.
In its simplest form, an optoisolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED), IRED
(infrared-emitting diode) or laser diode for signal transmission and a photosensor (or
phototransistor) for signal reception. Using an optocoupler, when an electrical current
is applied to the LED, infrared light is produced and passes through the material inside
the optoisolator. The beam travels across a transparent gap and is picked up by the
receiver, which converts the modulated light or IR back into an electrical signal. In the
absence of light, the input and output circuits are electrically isolated from each other.
Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
• In Electromagnetic Attraction Relays, there is a coil which
energises an electromagnet. When the operating current
becomes large, the magnetic field produced by an
electromagnet is so high that it attracts the armature or
plunger, making contact with the trip circuit contacts.
• The working mechanism of electromagnetic relays is
simple to understand. The electromagnetic relay operates
largely as per the principle of electromagnetic induction,
which also means that as the electric current is passed on
the conductor, the conductor behaves like a magnet.
 Data Acquisition Systems
• data acquisition systems will perform the tasks
such as conversion of data, storage of data,
transmission of data and processing of data.
• Data acquisition systems consider the
following analog signals.
– Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct
measurement of electrical quantities such as DC & AC
voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.
– Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers
such as LVDT, Thermocouple & etc.
• Following are the blocks of analog data
acquisition systems.
– Transducer − It converts physical quantities into
electrical signals.
– Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like
amplification and selection of desired portion of
the signal.
– Display device − It displays the input signals for
monitoring purpose.
– Graphic recording instruments − These can be used
to make the record of input data permanently.
– Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for
acquiring, storing & reproducing of input data.