GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY - I

{Core / I Sem}
Unit IV – Learning
Department of Psychology, Anna Adarsh
College for Women
 Syllabus
• Learning: Definition – Nature
• Association Learning: Classical Conditioning – Basic
Principles; Operant Conditioning – Basic Principles
• Reinforcement – Types – Punishment – Types
• Schedules of Reinforcement – Shaping – Learned
Helplessness
• Similarities and Differences between Classical
Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
• Social and Cognitive Learning: Latent Learning – Insight
Learning – Observational Learning
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 26/10/2021

• Learning: Definition – Nature

• Association Learning: Classical Conditioning –
Introduction
 Nature
• Will power, brains & courage often have little to
do with ability to alter bad habits
• Laws of learning – basis of behavior change
• Research on learning – influenced by
Behaviorism/stimulus-response psychology (“S-R”)
JOHN B. WATSON, 1924, American Psychologist
• Social-cognitive learning theories – learning
includes not only behavior change but also
changes in thoughts, expectations & knowledge
 Define..
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
brought about by experience or practice.
A relatively permanent change in behavior (or
behavioral potential) due to experience.
A relatively enduring change in potential
behavior that results from experience.
 Key terms
• Learning – A relatively permanent change in
behavior (or behavioral potential) due to
experience.
• Behaviorism – An approach to psychology that
emphasizes the study of observable behavior
and the role of the environment as a
determinant of behavior.
 Association Learning
• The process by which we make an association
between 2 events
Associative learning

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

Learning a connection between Learning to associate own
two stimuli behavior with its consequences
 Classical Conditioning

• Russian Psychologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936)

• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
- physiology of digestion
• Why dogs were salivating to things other than food?
• Conditional (dependent on environmental conditions) reflex –
basis of most learning
• Procedure by which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned
stimulus – classical/Pavlovian/Respondent conditioning
• Strong fears, taste aversions, some aspects of sexual behavior,
racial or ethnic prejudice (Baron & Byrne, 2000)
Contd…

• Pavlov’s experiment
• Stimulus – A physical event capable of behavior
• UCS – Stimulus that can evoke unconditioned
response the first time it is presented (meat
powder)
• UCR – Response evoked by unconditioned
stimulus (salivation)
• CS – Stimulus that is repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus (bell)
• CR – Response to the conditioned stimulus
(salivation after pairing)
Example

Before conditioning
UCS UCR
During conditioning
CS+UCS UCR
After conditioning

CS CR
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
• Acquisition - Process by which a CS acquires
the ability to elicit a CR through repeated
pairings of an UCS with the CS
• Temporal arrangement of CS-UCS pairings

Forward conditioning Simultaneous conditioning

 Delay conditioning Backward conditioning
 Trace conditioning
 Contd…

 Delay conditioning – A form of forward

conditioning in which onset of UCS begins while
CS is still present (more effective)
 Trace conditioning – Onset of CS precedes the
onset of UCS & presentation of CS & UCS does
not overlap
 Simultaneous conditioning - CS & UCS begin &
end at the same time (least effective)
 Backward conditioning – UCS precedes the CS
 Other factors – intensity of CS or UCS; CS-UCS
interval; familiarity
Contd…

• Extinction – CS repeatedly presented without US causes CR to

eventually disappear
• Reconditioning – Rapid recovery of CR to CS-UCS pairing after
extinction
• Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of a weakened CR to a
CS after a time interval following extinction
• Higher-order conditioning – Neutral stimulus becomes a CS by
being paired with an already established CS
• Stimulus generalization – tendency of stimuli similar to CS to
evoke CR
• Stimulus discrimination – tendency to respond to certain stimuli
but not others
Operant/ Probability determined through
Instrumental 4 basic procedures
Conditioning
 (Burrhus Frederic)
B.F. Skinner, 1904-1990,
Radical behaviorism
 Edward L. Thorndike,
1874-1949, Law of
effect
 Learning to repeat
behaviors that yield
positive outcomes and
avoid or escape
negative outcomes
 Probability that a given
behavior will occur
depends on
consequences
Reinforcement - Types
 Application (of desirable stimulus) or
removal of a (undesirable) stimulus
to increase the strength of a
behavior
 Positive reinforcers – stimuli that
strengthen responses that precede
them
 Negative reinforcers – stimuli that
strengthen responses which permit
the organism to avoid or escape
from their presence eg. alarm
 Premack principle – a more
preferred activity can be used to
reinforce a less preferred activity
 Positive reinforcer at one time or
context may have a different effect
at another eg. Food
 May differ with persons
Contd…

•Primary reinforcer – naturally

reinforces by meeting a basic
biological need eg. Candy
•Secondary reinforcer –
becomes reinforcing after
being paired with a primary
reinforcer such as praise,
tokens, awards, good grades,
etc.
•Positive reinforcement -
addition of a reinforcing
stimulus following a
behavior that makes it more
likely that the behavior will
occur again in the future
•Negative reinforcement –
behavior strengthens to
remove something unpleasant
eg. Increased parental
tendency to give in
Schedules of Reinforcement
Rules determining when and how reinforcements will be delivered
 Continuous Reinforcement Schedule – Every occurrence of a
particular behavior is reinforced, to strengthen new behaviors
 Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule - desired response is
reinforced only some of the time, more powerful
 Fixed Interval Schedule – specific interval of time must elapse before
a response will yield reinforcement, low response immediately after
R, more response as next R approaches
 Variable Interval Schedule – a variable amount of time must elapse
before a response will yield reinforcement, steady response rate with
no pause
 Fixed Ratio Schedule – reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number
of responses have been emitted, high response rate, brief pause
 Variable Ratio Schedule – reinforcement occurs after a random
number of responses, high and steady response, greatest resistance
to extinction
PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES

Interval schedules Ratio schedules

Schedule Examples Schedule Examples

Fixed interval – same Monthly salary Fixed ratio – One free for every 3
amount of time reinforcement after a purchases, fine after
between each fixed number of every 4 instances of
reinforcement responses late coming

Variable interval – Checking phone, Variable ratio - Winning a lottery,

varying amount of winning an online reinforcement after a number of shots at a
time between each game varying number of balloon game
reinforcement responses
Punishment – Types

• Application or removal of
stimulus decreases the strength
of a behavior
• Imposition of unpleasant stimulus or withdrawal of a
pleasant one
• Unpleasant outcome
 Reinforcement & Punishment - Overview

Procedure Stimulus event Effects Behavioral outcomes

Positive Application of a desirable stimulus Strengthens responses Learn to perform

reinforcement eg. Food, praise that precede occurrence responses that produce
of stimulus positive reinforcers

Negative Application of an undesirable Strengthens responses Learn to perform

reinforcement stimulus eg. Heat, cold, harsh that permit escape from responses that permit
criticism or avoidance of stimulus escape from or avoid
negative
reinforcers

Positive Application of an undesirable Weakens responses that Learn to suppress

punishment (aversive) stimulus eg. Additional precede occurrence of responses that lead to
chores, extra homework stimulus unpleasant
consequences

Negative Loss or postponement of an Weakens responses that Learn to suppress

punishment desirable stimulus eg. Cutting TV lead to loss or responses that lead to
time, playing with friends postponement of loss or postponement of
stimulus desired stimulus
 Shaping
• A technique of operant conditioning in which close and
closer approximations to desired behavior are required for
the delivery of positive reinforcement.
• Chaining – establishes a sequence of responses, leading to
a reward after the final response in the chain
• Small steps towards the final goal; reward after every step
• Successive approximations – even actions remotely
resembling target behavior are rewarded
• Helps acquire new and complex forms of behavior from
simpler ones
• Natural tendencies can influence the course and results of
operant conditioning
 Contd…
• Possible to speed up operant conditioning to
acquire complex responses eg. Rat in an
operant chamber
 Wander into front part of chamber – food pellet
 Little closer to lever – food pellet
 Touch the lever – food pellet
 Push part way down – food pellet
 Push hard enough to trigger the pellet
dispenser – behavior of lever pressing
established/shaped
• Two-process learning eg. Medicine odors CS for
fear & avoidance behavior negatively reinforced
Learned
Helplessness
• No response yields
reinforcement or provides
escape from negative events
• Partly due to Perception of
control eg. People with
traumatic experiences
• Genetically inherited
impairment in the ability to
experience pleasure –
hypohedonia (Meehl, 1975)
• Evaluation of reward relative
to previous experiences
• Temporary behavior shift –
contrast effect eg.
Unexpected salary rise
• Positive & negative contrast
effect
 Contd….

• Martin Seligman eg. Harnessed dogs

• Steven F. Maier et al, 2006 – training & input from vmPFC
necessary to learn how to take control
• Part of brain stem – dorsal raphe nucleus, older part of
brain, decreases activity in areas for ‘fight-or-flight’ response
• vmPFC inhibits the brain stem area, calms amygdala
response, allowing effective response to stressor & exhibit
control
• actually brain's default state is to assume that control is not
present, presence of "helpfulness" is what is actually
learned first… However, it is unlearned due to prolonged
aversive stimulation
• Depression – form of learned helplessness
• Eg. students, patients
 Similarities & Differences
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
• Association between • Association between
involuntary response & voluntary behavior &
stimulus, natural-neutral consequence
stimulus pairing • No such stimulus,
• Always a specific stimulus appropriate response by
that elicits desired response learner getting reinforced
• Association with some sort • Behavior that can be either
of already occurring natural rewarded or punished is
event required
• UCS does not depend on • Reinforcement contingent
learner’s response, natural on learner’s behavior
behavior after stimulus • Learner actively operates on
• Learner simply responds to the enviornment
the environment
 Social &Cognitive Learning
• Biological predisposition to learn things - Prepared,
unprepared & contraprepared behaviors, Seligman 1970
• Reversion to instinctive behavior – instinctive drift, Keller
Breland
• Cognitive processes – active & important role
• Edward C. Tolman (1932) & C.H. Honzik - cognitive map
• Social-learning theory – Dollard & Miller, 1950
• Social-cognitive theories – Emphasize how behavior is
learnt and maintained through observation and imitation
of others, positive consequences and cognitive processes
such as plans, expectations and beliefs. Albert Bandura,
1986
 Latent Learning
• Form of learning not immediately expressed in
an overt response; occurs without obvious
reinforcement
• No specific response is acquired, but
knowledge about responses & their
consequences (actions, payoffs, etc.)
• Knowledge permits creativity & flexibility to
reach goals
 Insight Learning
• Problem ---period of no progress---various
response strategies----perceptual
rearrangement (new relationships among
objects & events)-----sudden solution----
generalization to similar problems
• German Psychologist Wolfgang Kohler, 1925
Observational Learning