Cell Division

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 Key Roles of Cell Division
The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or
cell division

An adult human is made up of about 50 billion cells.

That’s 50 000 000 000 000 cells!

Everyone started out as just one single cell.

04/15/24 How does one cell become 50 million million? 2
 When do cells divide?

Cells divide when they reach a certain size

NO (nerve, skeletal muscle and red blood cells)

Cell Growth : Limits to growth

Stress on DNA
Difficulty moving nutrients/wastes across membrane
Ratio of surface area to volume
Volume increases at a faster rate than surface area

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 Most limiting factor in size is the size of the cell membrane
Cells must obtain nutrients
As a cell absorbs nutrients and gets larger, the volume of the cell
increases faster than the surface area
As volume increases, cell surface area does not increase as
greatly
Larger cells require a larger surface area for survival
Therefore, the demands of the cell (the volume) exceed the
ability of the cell to bring in nutrients and export wastes.

Solution?
Divide into two smaller cells

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Cell division and reproduction

It is necessary for reproduction in unicellular or

multicellular organisms
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes have no nucleus
Single circular chromosome
Cells divide by binary fission

Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes must divide their nucleus
Before the nucleus divides, the genetic material replicates
(duplicates)

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 Cell Division
Binary Fission, Mitosis & Meiosis
In unicellular organisms, division of one cell reproduces the
entire organism
Multicellular organisms depend on cell division

New cells are produced by old cells dividing

Why are new cells needed?

 Growth and repair of body cells

 Production of specialized sex cells
New cells are needed for two main reasons, so there
are two different types of cell division…

04/15/24 …mitosis and meiosis. 6

 Binary Fission
3 step process :
Single “naked” strand splits and forms a duplicate of itself.
The two copies move to opposite sides of the cell
Cell “pinches” into two new and identical cells called "daughter cells".

Origin of Cell wall

replication Plasma membrane
E. coli cell Bacterial chromosome
1 Chromosome Two copies
replication of origin
begins.
2 Replication Origin Origin
continues.

3 Replication
finishes.

4 Two daughter
cells result.
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Structure of Chromosomes
Every 200 nucleotide pairs, the DNA wraps twice around a group of 8 histone
proteins to form a nucleosome.
Higher order coiling and supercoiling also help condense and package the
chromatin inside the nucleus:

The degree of coiling can vary in different regions of the chromatin:

Heterochromatin refers to highly coiled regions where genes aren’t
expressed.
Euchromatin refers to loosely coiled regions where genes can be
expressed.
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Chromosome Formation

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 Spindle Apparatus
• Composed of microtubules originated from centrioles
• Microtubules are formed polymerization of tubulin proteins
3 types of spindle microtubules
Aster : Positioning of the spindle apparatus
Polar : To “push” the poles away from each other
Kinetochore : Attach to kinetochore , at the centromere

Kinetochore Spindle
Fibers
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 Cell Cycle G1 S G2 M C

The cell cycle consists of

Interphase- Normal cell activity
M-Phase mitotic- Division of the nucleus
C- Phase - Cytokinesis phase- Division of the cytoplasm
1) G1 (Gap 1) Phase :
Cell performs its normal function (cells which do not divide stay in this stage
for their entire life span)
Cell growth-Cells undergo majority of growth
Cell doubles its organelles
Accumulates materials for DNA synthesis
2) S (Synthesis) Phase :
DNA synthesis occurs
DNA is copied : Chromosome replicates results in duplicated chromosomes
(Synthesizes) : Sister chromatids
3) G2 (Gap 2) Phase :
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Cell prepares for cell division-Chromosomes condense 11

Cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell division

Mitotic :
Walther Flemming in 1882
Mitotic division results in genetically identical eukaryotic cells
(a clone)
Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction

Chromosome Distribution

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Interphase..... ?

1. Cell preparing to divide

2. Genetic material doubles

Chromosome – Condensed chromatin

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Animal Cell Plant cell
Prophase

Chromosomes become visible

Centrioles separate and move to opposite sides of
the cell
Chromosomes become attached to fibers in the
spindle at the centromere
Chromosomes coil more tightly
Nucleolus disappears
Nuclear envelope breaks down
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Metaphase

Animal Cell Plant Cell

• Chromosomes line up along center of cell called

the Metaphase Plate
• Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers
• Spindle & Astral fibers are now clearly visible

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 Anaphase

Animal Cell Plant Cell

• Centromeres split up separating chromosome copies

• Chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite sides of cell
• Spindle & Astral fibers begin to break down
• Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles
• Anaphase ends when chromosomes stop moving
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 Telophase (cytokenesis)

Animal Cell Plant Cell

• Nuclear envelope forms around both sets of chromosomes

• Chromosomes begin to disperse into a chromatin
• Spindle begins to break apart
• Nucleolus becomes visible
• Spindle & Astral fibers completely disappear
– Cytokenesis happens with most (but not all) cells
– Cytoplasm & organelles move (mostly equally) to either side of
the cell. Cell Membrane “pinches” to form 2 separate cells 17
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CYTOKINESIS – Occurs at the same time as telophase
Animal cells:
Cell membrane is drawn inward until the cytoplasm is pinched
into 2 nearly equal parts

Plant cells:
Cell plate forms midway between the divided nuclei
Cell wall begins to appear in the cell plate

Result? 2 new identical cells

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Nucleus Chromatine Chromosome
Nucleoluscondensing

Metaphase. The
1 Prophase. 2 Prometaphase. 3 4 Anaphase. The 5 Telophase. Daughter
spindle is complete,
The chromatin We now see discrete chromatids of each nuclei are forming.
and the chromosomes,
is condensing. chromosomes; each chromosome have Meanwhile, cytokinesis
attached to microtubules
The nucleolus is consists of two separated, and the has started: The cell
at their kinetochores,
beginning to identical sister daughter chromosomes plate, which will
are all at the metaphase
disappear. chromatids. Later are moving to the ends divided the cytoplasm
plate.
Although not in prometaphase, the of cell as their in two, is growing
yet visible nuclear envelop will kinetochore toward the perimeter
in the micrograph, fragment. microtubles shorten. of the parent cell.
the mitotic spindle is
staring to from.

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04/15/24 20
 Chromosome Appearance &
Phase Important Events
Location

DNA copies itself; chromatin DNA replication, cell grows

Interphase and replicates organelles

Chromosomes coil up Nuclear envelope disappears,

Prophase spindle fibers form

Chromosomes line up in the

Spindle fibers connect to
Metaphase middle
chromosomes

Chromosome copies divide and Spindle fibers pull

Anaphase move apart chromosome copies apart to
opposite poles
Chromosomes uncoil back into Nuclear envelopes reform, 2
Telophase chromatin new nuclei are formed,
spindle fibers disappear
Division of the rest of the
Chromatin
Cytokinesis cell: cytoplasm and
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 Meiosis
Two Parts:
Meiosis I: Separation of homologous chromosomes
Meiosis II: Separation of sister chromatids
• Only diploid cells can divide by meiosis.
• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid
to haploid
• Meiosis takes place in two sets of divisions
• Meiosis I reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid to
haploid
• Prior to meiosis I, DNA replication occurs.
• No replication of DNA occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II.
• Meiosis II produces four haploid daughter cells
• During meiosis, there will be two nuclear divisions, and the
result will be four haploid nuclei.
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Duplicated Chromosome
Non-sister
chromatids

Centromere Duplication

Sister Sister
chromatids chromatids
Two unduplicated
chromosomes Two duplicated chromosomes

Sister chromatids attached at centromere

Sister chromatids separate during cell division

Ploidy - number of copies of each chromosome - number of genomes

Haploid (N)= one set of unpaired chromosomes
Diploid (2N or 2n)= one set of paired chromosomes
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 Genetic shuffling of Meiosis
In addition to a new combination of chromosomes resulting
from fertilization, there are also events in Meiosis I that
shuffle the genes.
1. Crossing over in Prophase I
Physical exchange of sections of chromosomes
• Homologous chromosomes line up ( = tetrad)
• Homologues break at identical locations, then rejoin opposite partners.
• Portions of chromatids are exchanged ( = crossing over)
• This creates new combinations of the alleles on each chromosome.
• Occurs randomly several times on every chromosome.
• Results in mixing of the genes ( = genetic recombination)

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2. Independent assortment in Metaphase I.
Chromosomes separate randomly ( = law of independent assortment)
Results in genetic variation

• Diploid organisms can produce 2n diff. gametes

• Ea. homologous pair can orient in two different way
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• Humans: 223 = 8,388,608 26
(est. 8.4 million)
Fertilization restores full set of chromosomes

Female gamete Male gamete

Diploid zygote contains

homologous pairs of
chromosomes

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 Reduction of Chromosome - Anaphase I

During anaphase 1, each homologous chromosome is pulled

to opposite sides of the cell. Unlike mitosis, THE
CENTROMERES DO NOT BREAK.

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1. Meiosis 1
a. DNA replication takes place
b. A parent cell produces two daughter cells each with one
member of each original pair of homologous
chromosomes (to create haploid daughter cells)
c. Crossing over may occur
Nuclei may or may not reform following division.
Cytokenesis may or may not occur

2. Meiosis 2
a. There is no more DNA replication
b. The chromatids of each chromosome separate and
each daughter cell divides
c. At the end of Meiosis 2, there are 4 daughter cells
from each parent cell.
d. Each daughter cell has half the number of
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chromosomes as the parent cell
 Spermatogenesis

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 Oogenesis

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 COMPARISON- MITOSIS and MEIOSIS

Mitosis: Meiosis

Occurs in somatic (body) cells Occurs in germ cells (immature

reproductive cells)
Mitosis conserves the number of Reduces the number of
chromosome sets chromosomes set from 2n to n
Growth,development, replacement Production of gametes (sex cells)
& repair
Homologous chromosomes do not Sysnapsis
pair up
No genetic exchange between Crossing-over
homologous chromosomes
One diploid cell produces 2 Produce 4 daughter cells, distinct
diploid from parent and each other
cells or one haploid cell produces
2 Daughter cells are haploid (1N)
haploid cells DNA duplication followed by 2 cell
Daughter cells are diploid (2N) divisions
New cells are genetically identical
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to original cell
 Thank You

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