S TATISTICAL

PROCESS CONTROL
 Modern Importance of Quality

“The first job we have, is to turn out quality

products that consumers will buy and keep on
buying. If we produce it efficiently and
economically, we will earn a profit, in which you
will share.”
- William Cooper Procter
Grandson of the founder of Procter and Gamble
(October 1887)

2
 Three Issues

1. Productivity
2. Cost
3. Quality

3
 Significant Issue
Off These three determinants of the profitability the most
significant factor in determining the long range success or failure
of an organization is Quality.

Good quality of product and service can provide:

1. Competitive edge
2. Reduce cost due to returns, rework, and scrap
3. Productivity and Profits
4. Generates Satisfied customers:
Continued Patronage and word of mouth advertisement

4
 Cost of Quality

Running a company by profit alone is

like driving a car by looking in the
rearview mirror.
It tells you where you’ve been, not where
you are going!
Dr. E. Deming
 What is the Cost of Quality?
• Cost of Quality: the cost of ensuring that the
job is done right + the cost of not doing the job
right.

Cost of Conformance + Cost of Non-Conformance

(Prevention & Appraisal) (Internal/External Defects)

6
 Four Cost Categories Related to Quality

•• Prevention
Preventioncost:
cost:Cost
Costof
ofplanning
planningand
andexecuting
executingaaproject
projectso
soititisis
error-free
error-freeor
orwithin
withinan
anacceptable
acceptableerror
errorrange.
range.
•• Appraisal
Appraisalcost:
cost:Cost
Costof
ofevaluating
evaluatingprocesses
processesand
andtheir
theiroutputs
outputsto
to
ensure
ensurequality.
quality.
•• Internal
Internalfailure
failurecost:
cost:Cost
Costincurred
incurredto
tocorrect
correctan
anidentified
identifieddefect
defect
before
beforethe
thecustomer
customerreceives
receivesthe
theproduct.
product.
•• External
Externalfailure
failurecost:
cost:Cost
Costthat
thatrelates
relatesto
toall
allerrors
errorsnot
notdetected
detected
and
andcorrected
correctedbefore
beforedelivery
deliveryto
tothe
thecustomer.
customer.

7
Normal Cost of Quality Distribution when
Quality System is NOT in Place

Appraisal Cost

Prevention
Cost

Internal
Failure Cost
Cost of
Quality
External
Failure
Cost

8
Optimum Cost of Quality Distribution
when Quality System is in Place

Appraisal Cost

Prevention
Cost of Cost
Quality Internal Failure Cost

External Failure Cost

9
 Definitions and Meaning of Quality

The Eight Dimensions of Quality

1. Performance (will the product do the intended job?)

2. Reliability (how often the product fails?)
3. Durability (how long the product lasts?)
4. Serviceability (how easy is to repair the product?)
5. Aesthetics (what does the product look like?)
6. Features (what does the product do?)
7. Conformance to (Whether the product meet the
Standards specifications)
8. Perceived quality (what is the reputation of a company
or its
products?)

10
11
 Have you ever…

• Shot a rifle?
• Played darts?
• Played basketball?

What is System of point of

these sports?
12
 Have you ever…

Shot a rifle?
Played darts?
Played basketball? Ram

Arjun

Who is the better shot? 13

 Discussion

• What do you measure in your process?

• Why do those measures matter?
• Are those measures consistently the same?
• Why not?

14
 Variability

• Deviation = distance between 8

7
observations and the mean (or 10
8
average) 9

Ram
Observations Deviations
10 10 - 8.4 = 1.6
9 9 – 8.4 = 0.6
8 8 – 8.4 = -0.4
8 8 – 8.4 = -0.4
7 7 – 8.4 = -1.4
Arjun
averages 8.4 0.0

15
 Variability

• Deviation = distance between

observations and the mean (or
average) Ram

Observations Deviations
7
7 7 – 6.6 = 0.4 6
7 7 – 6.6 = 0.4 7
7 7 – 6.6 = 0.4 7
6 Arjun
6 6 – 6.6 = -0.6
6 6 – 6.6 = -0.6
averages 6.6 0.0

16
 Variability
8
7
10
• Variance = average distance between 8
observations and the mean squared 9

Ram

Observations Deviations Squared Deviations

10 10 - 8.4 = 1.6 2.56
9 9 – 8.4 = 0.6 0.36
8 8 – 8.4 = -0.4 0.16
Arjun
8 8 – 8.4 = -0.4 0.16
7 7 – 8.4 = -1.4 1.96
averages 8.4 0.0 1.0 Variance
17
 Variability

• Variance = average distance between

observations and the mean squared
Ram

Observations Deviations Squared Deviations

7
7 7 - 6.6 = 0.4 0.16
6
7 7 - 6.6 = 0.4 0.16 7
7 7 - 6.6 = 0.4 0.16 7
6 Arjun
6 6 – 6.6 = -0.6 0.36
6 6 – 6.6 = -0.6 0.36
averages 6.6 0.0 0.24 Variance
18
 Variability

• Standard deviation = square root

of variance
Ram

Variance Standard
Deviation
Ram 1.0 1.0
Arjun 0.24 0.4898979 Arjun

But what good is a standard deviation

19
 Variability

The world tends to

be bell-shaped

Even very rare Fewer Most Fewer Even very rare

outcomes are in the outcomes in the outcomes are
possible “tails” occur in the “tails” possible
(probability > 0) (lower) middle (upper) (probability > 0)

20
 Variability

Here is why: Even outcomes that are equally

likely (like dice), when you add
them up, become bell shaped

Add up the dots on the dice

0.2

0.15
Probability

1 die
0.1 2 dice
0.05 3 dice

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sum of dots
21
 “Normal” bell shaped curve

Add up about 30 or most things

and you start to be “normal”

Normal distributions are divided up

into 3 standard deviations on
each side of the mean

Once you know that, you

know a lot about
what is going on

And that is what a standard deviation

is good for 22
 Potential Reasons of Variations
The Operator
• Training, supervision, technique

The Method
• Procedure, Set-up, temperature, etc.

The Material
• Moisture content, blending, contamination

The Machine
• Machine condition, inherent precision
Management
• Poor Process management, Poor System

23
 Causes of Variations
Common Causes : Improvement if system
• Variation inherent in process
• Can be eliminated only through improvement in system
• No pattern

Assignable Causes : Control of Process

• Variation due to identifiable factors
• Can be modified through operator or management action
• May exhibit a pattern
• Examples of special causes include: wrong tool, wrong production
method, improper raw material, operator’s skill, wrong die etc.

SPC uses samples to identify that Assignable causes have occurred 24

 Statistical Process Control
• The underlying concept of statistical process control is based on a
comparison of what is happening today with what happened previously.

• We take a snapshot of how the process typically performs or build a

model of how we think the process will perform and calculate control
limits for the expected measurements of the output of the process.

• Then we collect data from the process and compare the data to the control
limits.

The majority of measurements should fall within the control limits.

Measurements that fall outside the control limits are examined to see
if they belong to the same population as our initial snapshot or model.

25
 Statistical Quality Control
• The purpose of statistical quality control is to ensure, in a cost efficient
manner, that the product shipped to customers meets their specifications.

• Inspecting every product is costly and inefficient, but the

consequences of shipping non conforming product can be significant
in terms of customer dissatisfaction.

• Statistical Quality Control is the process of inspecting enough

product from given lots to ensure a specified quality level.

26
 What are SPC Techniques?

There are many ways to implement process control.

Key monitoring and investigating tools include:
• Histograms
• Run Charts
• Pareto Charts
• Cause and Effect Diagrams
• Flow Diagram
• Scatter Diagrams
• Control Charts

27
 Control Charts:
Recognizing Sources of Variation
• Why Use a Control Chart?
– To monitor, control, and improve process performance over time by
studying variation and its source.

What Does a Control Chart Do?

• Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring process variation over
time;
• Distinguishes special from common causes of variation, as a guide to
local or management action;
• Serves as a tool for ongoing control of a process;
• Helps improve a process to perform consistently for higher quality, lower
cost, and higher effective capacity;
• Provides a common language for discussing process performance. 28
 Control Charts:
Recognizing Sources of Variation
How Do I Use Control Charts?
 There are many types of control charts. The control
charts that you or your team decides to use should be
determined by the type of data that you have.

 Data are of two types

– Variables
– Attributes

29
 Control Charts:
Recognizing Sources of Variation

Variables “Things we measure”

Length Blood Pressure Diameter

Weight Volume Tensile strength
Time Temperature

Attributes “Things we count”

Number or percent defective items

Number of defects per item
Types of defects etc.

30
 Control Charts: Types
Control Charts for Variables Data
_
X and R charts : for sample averages and ranges
_
X and s charts : for sample averages and standard deviations

Md and R charts : for sample medians and ranges

X and Rm charts : for individual measures and moving ranges

Control Charts for Attributes Data

p charts : proportions of units nonconforming

np charts : number of units nonconforming

c charts : number of defects/nonconformities

u charts : number of defects/nonconformities per unit 31

 Control Charts: Selection

• How Do I Select Control Charts?

– Use the following tree diagram to determine which

chart will best fit your situation.
– Only the most common types of charts are addressed.

32
Control Chart Selection: Variable Data

n=1 2<n<9 n is ‘small’ n is ‘large’

median 3<n<5 n > 10

X & Rm X&R X&R X&S

33
Control Chart Selection: Attribute Data

Defect or
Defective Data
Nonconformity Data

Constant Variable Constant

Variable
sample size sample size n > 50 n > 50

c chart u chart p or np chart p chart

34
 Control Chart Construction
• Select the process to be charted;
• Decide what to measure and count; (Pareto sizing)
• Determine sampling method and plan;

– How large a sample needs to be selected? Balance the time and cost to collect a
sample with the amount of information you will gather.
– As much as possible, obtain the samples under the same technical conditions: the
same machine, operator, lot, and so on. (Rational Sub-grouping)
– Frequency of sampling will depend on whether you are able to discern patterns in
the data. Consider hourly, daily, shifts, monthly, annually, lots, and so on. Once
the process is “in control”, you might consider reducing the frequency with which
you sample.
– Generally, collect 20-25 groups of samples before calculating the statistics and
control limits.

35
 Control Chart Construction

• Initiate data collection:

– Run the process untouched, and gather sampled data.
– Record data on an appropriate Control Chart sheet or
other graph paper. Include any unusual events that occur.
• Calculate the appropriate statistics and control limits:
– Use the appropriate formulas.
• Construct the control chart(s) and plot the data.

36
 Control Chart Interpretation

What is Process Control?

Process Control is the active changing of the process

based on the results of process monitoring.

Once the process monitoring tools have detected an out-of-

control situation,

the person responsible for the process makes a change to

bring the process back into control.

37
 Control Chart Interpretation

What to do if the process is "Out of Control"?

If the process is out-of-control, the process engineer looks

for an assignable cause by following the out-of-control
action plan (OCAP) associated with the control chart.

38
 Set of Control Chart Interpretation
rules to determine "Out of Control"
General rules for detecting out of control or non-random situations
Any Point Above +3 Sigma
------------------------------------------------------------------------ +3 LIMIT
2 Out of the Last 3 Points Above +2 Sigma
---------------------------------------------------------------------- +2 LIMIT
4 Out of the Last 5 Points Above +1 Sigma
---------------------------------------------------------------------- +1 LIMIT
8 Consecutive Points on This Side of Control Line
=========================================== CENTER LINE
8 Consecutive Points on This Side of Control Line
------------------------------------------------------------------------ -1 LIMIT
4 Out of the Last 5 Points Below - 1 Sigma
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- -2 LIMIT
2 Out of the Last 3 Points Below -2 Sigma
------------------------------------------------------------------------- -3 LIMIT
Any Point Below -3 Sigma

TREND RULE :6 in a row trending up or down.

14 in a row alternating up and down
39
 Control Chart Representing Limits, Special
Causes, Common Causes

Special cause Common cause

Upper
control limits

Centre Line

Lower
control limits

Stable process Unstable process

40
Control Charts for Variable Type of Data

and R charts

In the x bar chart the sample means are plotted in order to

control the mean value of a variable.

In R chart, the sample ranges are plotted in order to control

the variability of a variable

41
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for R charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:

Ri  X max ( i )
 X min( i )

Ri = range of ith sample

Xmax(i) = maximum value of the data in ith sample
Xmin (i) = minimum value of the data in ith sample

R i
= mean of ‘g’ samples
R  i 1 R
g
Where D3 and D4 are
UCLR  D4 R (Upper control limit for R chart) constants and their
values can be obtained
from standard tables.
LCLR  D3 R (Lower control limit for R chart) These values depend
upon the size of sample.
42
Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Factors for Calculating Limits for and R Charts

n A2 D3 D4
2 1.880 0 3.267
3 1.023 0 2.575
4 0.729 0 2.282
5 0.577 0 2.115
6 0.483 0 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.223 1.777

43
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for x bar chart are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:
n

X i
Xi  i 1

X i = mean of the ith sample

n = sample size,
Xi = ith data
g

X
X  i 1
i
 CL X = mean of ‘g’ samples
g x
Where A2 is
constants and its
value can be
UCLx  X  A2 R (Upper control limit for X bar chart) obtained from
standard table. Its
LCLx  X  A2 R (Lower control limit for X bar chart) value depend
upon the size of
sample. 44
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Example
Mean values and ranges of data from 20 samples (sample size = 4) are shown
in the table below:

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

S.N of Range S.N of Range S.N of Range S.N of Range S.N of Range
Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample

1 10 4 5 9 5 9 10 4 13 12 4 17 12 4

2 15 4 6 11 6 10 11 6 14 12 3 18 15 3

3 12 5 7 11 4 11 12 5 15 11 3 19 11 3

4 11 4 8 9 4 12 13 4 16 15 4 20 10 4

20

R
Average of Ranges of 20 samples = i 1
20
= 4.15 (Center Line of R Chart)
Upper Control Limit of R chart = D4*4.15 (D4 = 2.282 for sample size 4)
= 9.47  9.5
Lower Control Limit of R chart = D3*4.15 (D3 = 0 for sample size 4) = 0 45
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Example
Mean values and ranges of data from 20 samples (sample size = 4) are shown
in the table below:

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

S.N of Range S.N of Range S.N of Range S.N of Range S.N of Range
Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample

1 10 4 5 9 5 9 10 4 13 12 4 17 12 4

2 15 4 6 11 6 10 11 6 14 12 3 18 15 3

3 12 5 7 11 4 11 12 5 15 11 3 19 11 3

4 11 4 8 9 4 12 13 4 16 15 4 20 10 4
20

X
i 1
Average of mean values of 20 samples =
20
= 11.6 (Center Line of x bar Chart)
Upper Control Limit of x bar chart = 11.6 + A 2*4.15 = 14.63 (A2 = 0.729 for sample size 4)

Lower Control Limit of x bar chart = 11.6 - A2*4.15 = 08.57 (A2 = 0.729 for sample size 4)
46
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
10

8 All the data are within

the LCL and UCL in
6
R Chart.
4
Hence variability of
2 the process data is not
0 an issue to worry.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

R Chart
Sample data at S.N 2,
16
16, and 18 are slightly
14

12
above the UCL.
10
Efforts must be made
8
to find the special
6
causes and revised
4
limits are advised to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 calculate after
X-Bar Chart
deleting these data. 47
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
and s charts

Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for s charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:

Suppose we have g preliminary samples at our disposition,

each of size n, and let si be the standard deviation of the ith sample.
Then the average of the g standard deviations is

g

s
1
S i (Center Line for ‘s’ chart) Where B3 and B4
g i 1 are constants and
their values can
UCLR  B4 S (Upper control limit for ‘s’ chart) be obtained from
standard tables.
These values
LCLR  B3 S (Lower control limit for ‘s’ chart) depend upon 48the
size of sample.
Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Factors for Calculating Limits for and S Charts

n A3 B3 B4
2 1.880 0 3.267
3 1.023 0 2.575
4 0.729 0 2.282
5 0.577 0 2.115
6 0.483 0 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.223 1.777

49
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for x bar charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:
n

X i
Xi  i 1

X i = mean of the i sample

th

n = sample size,
Xi = ith data
g

X X
X  i 1
i
 CL
= mean of ‘g’ samples
g x
Where A3 is
constants and its
value can be
obtained from
UCL x  X  A3 S (Upper control limit for X bar chart)
standard table. Its
value depend
LCL x  X  A3 S (Lower control limit for X bar chart) upon the size of
50
sample.
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Example
Mean values and SD of data from 30 samples (sample size = 5) are shown in
the table below:

SN Mean SD SN Mean SD SN Mean SD SN Mean SD SN Mean SD

1 55.6 9.63 7 46.8 6.72 13 44 14.35 19 50.2 7.6 25 44.6 8.96
2 61 8.63 8 44.2 8.53 14 51.6 5.18 20 44 8.46 26 46.8 6.5
3 45.2 7.4 9 50.8 11.95 15 53.2 5.36 21 50 5.15 27 49.2 3.19
4 46.2 4.09 10 48.4 6.19 16 52.4 9.48 22 47 5.15 28 45.6 7.96
5 46.8 7.22 11 51.2 6.83 17 50.6 3.44 23 50.6 5.55 29 57.6 14.38
6 49.8 8.76 12 49.4 5.46 18 56 7 24 48.8 6.5 30 51.4 6.8

g

s
1
Average of Ranges of 30 samples = S i = 7.41 (Center Line of s Chart)
g i 1

Upper Control Limit of s chart = B4*7.41 (B3 = 2.115 for sample size 5)
= 15.48
Lower Control Limit of R chart = B3*7.41 (B4 = 0 for sample size 5) = 0
51
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data
Example
Mean values and SD of data from 30 samples (sample size = 5) are shown in
the table below:

SN Mean SD SN Mean SD SN Mean SD SN Mean SD SN Mean SD

1 55.6 9.63 7 46.8 6.72 13 44 14.35 19 50.2 7.6 25 44.6 8.96
2 61 8.63 8 44.2 8.53 14 51.6 5.18 20 44 8.46 26 46.8 6.5
3 45.2 7.4 9 50.8 11.95 15 53.2 5.36 21 50 5.15 27 49.2 3.19
4 46.2 4.09 10 48.4 6.19 16 52.4 9.48 22 47 5.15 28 45.6 7.96
5 46.8 7.22 11 51.2 6.83 17 50.6 3.44 23 50.6 5.55 29 57.6 14.38
6 49.8 8.76 12 49.4 5.46 18 56 7 24 48.8 6.5 30 51.4 6.8
30

X
i 1
Average of mean values of 30 samples =
30
= 49.63 (Center Line of x bar Chart)
Upper Control Limit of x bar chart = 49.63 + A 2*7.41 = 60.21 (A2 = 1.427 for sample size 5)

Lower Control Limit of x bar chart = 49.63 - A2*7.41 = 39.05 (A2 = 1.427 for sample size 5)
52
 Control Charts for Variable Type of Data

60
Sample data at S.N 2, is
55 slightly above the UCL.
Efforts must be made to find
Sample Mean

50 the special causes and

revised limits are advised to
45 calculate after deleting these
data.
40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
X Bar chart

14

10 All the data are within the

Sample SD

LCL and UCL in R Chart.

6 Hence variability of the
process data is not an issue
2
to worry.
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

S chart
53
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data

p charts

p-charts calculates the percent defective in sample. p-charts

are used when observations can be placed in two categories
such as yes or no, good or bad, pass or fail etc.

54
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for p charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:

sum of defectives in all samples = centre line of p chart

p
total number of items in all samples

p (1  p ) (Upper control limit for p chart)

UCL  p  3
n

p (1  p ) (Lower control limit for p chart)

LCL  p  3
n

Where n is the sample size. Sample size in p chart must be  50

Sometimes LCL in p chart becomes negative, in such cases LCL should be taken 55
as 0
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Example
Data for defective CDs from 20 samples (sample size = 100) are shown in the
table below:
Sample No. No. of Proportion Sample No. No. of Proportion
Defective Defective = Defective Defective =
CDs = x x/sample size CDs = x x/sample size
1 4 .04 11 6 .06
2 3 .03 12 5 .05
3 3 .03 13 4 .04
4 5 .05 14 5 .05
5 6 .06 15 4 .04
6 5 .05 16 7 .07
7 2 .02 17 6 .06
8 3 .03 18 8 .08
9 5 .05 19 6 .06
10 6 .06 20 8 .08

p (1  p ) .051(1  .051)
UCL  p  3  0.051  3  .12
sum of defectives 101
n 100
CL =   0.051
sum of allsamples 2000
p (1  p ) .051(1  .051)
LCL  p  3  0.051  3  .02  0
n 100 56
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
P CHART

0.14

0.12

0.10
MEANP
0.08 UCLP
0.06 LCLP
P
0.04

0.02

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

There is important observation that is clearly visible from the data points that
there is an increasing trend in the average proportion defectives beyond
sample number 15. Also, data show cyclic pattern. Process appears to be out
of control and also there is strong evidence that data are not from
independent source. 57
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data

np charts

np-charts calculates the number of defective in sample. np-

charts are used when observations can be placed in two
categories such as yes or no, good or bad, pass or fail etc.

It is easier to relate the number of defectives than to the

proportion defective. However, the np charts should not be
used when the sample size varies as the Centre line and the
control limits will vary.

58
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for np charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:

sum of defectives = centre line of np

np  chart
total number samples

 
   (Upper control limit for np chart)
UCL  n p  3 n p 1  p 
 

 
   (Lower control limit for np chart)
LCL  n p  3 n p 1  p 
 
Where n is the sample size. Sample size in np chart must be  50

Sometimes LCL in np chart becomes negative, in such cases LCL should be taken59as 0
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Example
Data for the number of defective products from 20 samples (sample size =
300) are shown in the table below:
Sample No. No. of Sample No. No. of
Defective Defective
1 10 11 6
2 12 12 19
3 8 13 10
4 9 14 8
5 6 15 7
6 11 16 4
7 13 17 11
8 10 18 10
9 8 19 6
10 9 20 7

 
UCL  n p  3 n p (1  p )  9.2  3 9.2 (1  9.2 )  18.16
300
sum of defectives 184
CL =   9.2
Number of samples 20  
LCL  n p  3 n p (1  p )  9.2  3 9.2 (1  9.2 )  0.24
300
60
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
20
18
16
14
Defectives

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Sample data at S.N 12, is above the UCL. Efforts must be made to find the
special causes and revised limits are advised to calculate after deleting these
data.

61
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data

c charts

c-charts counts the number of defects in an item. c-charts are used only
when the number of occurrence per unit of measure can be counted such
as number of scratches, cracks etc.

62
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for c charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:

sum of defects in all samples

c = centre line of c chart
total number of items in all samples

(Upper control limit for c chart)

UCL  c  3 c

LCL  c  3 c (Lower control limit for c chart)

63
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Example
Data for defects on TV set from 20 samples (sample size = 10) are shown in
the table below:

Sample No. of Sample No. of Sample No. of Sample No. of

No. Defects No. Defects No. Defects No. Defects
1 5 6 4 11 6 16 5
2 4 7 5 12 5 17 4
3 5 8 6 13 4 18 6
4 6 9 8 14 7 19 6
5 4 10 7 15 6 20 6

sum of defects 109

CL =   5.45
number of samples 20

UCL  c  3 c  5.45  3 5.45  12.45

LCL  c  3 c  5.45  3 5.45  1.55  0

64
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data

14

12

10
Defects

8
6

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

None of the sample is out of the LCL and UCL. But the chart shows cyclic
trend.

65
Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data

u charts

u-chart counts the number of defect per sample. The u chart is used when
it is not possible to have a sample size of a fixed size.

66
 Control Charts for Attribute Type of Data
Centre line, upper, & lower control limit for u charts are calculated.
The formulae used are as following:
k

sum of defects in all samples c i

= centre line of u
u =
i 1
k
chart
total number of items in all samples n i
i 1

ci =number of defects in ith sample

k = number of samples
ni = size of ith samples

u
UCL  u  3 (Upper control limit for u chart)
ni

u (Lower control limit for uc chart)

LCL  u  3
ni 67
 Example
Data for defects in a product from 20 samples are shown in the table below.
The number of products varies from sample to sample. Construct a control
for number of defects per 100 products.

Sample No. of No. of Sample No. of No. of Sample No. of No. of

No. products Defects No. products Defects No. products Defects
inspected inspected inspected
1 200 5 8 150 10 15 100 6
2 300 14 9 150 6 16 200 8
3 250 8 10 250 10 17 200 5
4 150 8 11 300 9 18 100 5
5 250 12 12 250 16 19 300 14
6 100 6 13 200 12 20 200 8
7 200 20 14 250 10

4.68
k
UCL  4.68  3  9.27

c
i 1
i
192 2
u k
  4.68
41
n i
4.68
i 1
LCL  4.68  3  0.092 68
2
S No. Sample size No. of UCL LCL S No. Sample size No. of UCL LCL
ni Defects per ni Defects per
100 product 100 product
1 2.0 2.50 9.3 0.1 11 3.0 3.00 8.4 0.9
2 3.0 4.67 8.4 0.9 12 2.5 6.40 8.8 0.6
3 2.5 3.20 8.8 0.6 13 2.0 6.00 9.3 0.1
4 1.5 5.33 10.0 0.0 14 2.5 4.00 8.8 0.6
5 2.5 4.80 8.8 0.6 15 1.0 6.00 11.2 0.0
6 1.0 6.00 11.2 0.0 16 2.0 4.00 9.3 0.1
7 2.0 10.00 9.3 0.1 17 2.0 2.50 9.3 0.1
8 1.5 6.67 10.0 0.0 18 1.0 5.00 11.2 0.0
9 1.5 4.00 10.0 0.0 19 3.0 4.67 8.4 0.9
10 2.5 4.00 8.8 0.6 20 2.0 4.00 9.3 0.1

12

10

8
Defects

-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

69