INFECTION

DISEASE
 1ST LINE OF DEFENSE
Intact skin
Sebum, sweat, keratin, dryness of the skin
Mucous Membranes
Respiratory tract
Action of cilia, action of epiglottis
Digestive tract
Saliva, Gastric juice (HCl), defecation
Genitourinary tract
Urination, pH of the vagina
Secretions
lysozyme in the:
saliva
tears
sweat
 2nd LINE OF DEFENSE

Inflammation (Latin, inflammatio, a setting on fire)

- is a protective attempt by the
body to remove the injurious stimuli
as well as initiate the healing process
for the tissue.
-In the absence of inflammation,
wounds and infections would never
heal and progressive destruction of
the tissue would compromise the
survival of the organism.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
-is the process of engulfing particulate matter
*phagocytes
-most of the phagocytes are leukocytes(WBC)
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
-are considered scavengers in the blood
-remove debris and antigens by engulfing them
-they contain lysosomes that contain enzymes
which oxidize and destroy engulfed cells.

3 categories of WBC
1. Granulocytes (neutrophils,eosinophils,basophils)
2. Monocytes/Macrophages (Fixed and Wandering)
3. Lymphocytes (B and T cells)
 Types of granulocytes
Their names are derived from their staining
characteristics; for example, the most abundant granulocyte
is the neutrophil granulocyte, which has neutrally-staining
cytoplasmic granules. Other white blood cells which are not
granulocytes (agranulocytes) are mainly lymphocytes and
monocytes.

A NEUTROPHIL with a EOSINOPHILS have A BASOPHIL with

segmented nucleus
lobed nuclei (two lobed nuclei
(center and
surrounded by to four lobes) surrounded by
erythrocytes
erythrocytes)
Neutrophils("eat" bacteria and release cytokines.)
-are normally found in the bloodstream and are the
most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 50% to 60% of
the total circulating white blood cells. One liter of human blood
contains about five billion neutrophils.
-Once neutrophils have received the appropriate
signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood
and reach the site of an infection. Neutrophils do not return to
the blood; they turn into pus cells and die

Eosinophils (fight parasites and contribute to allergic reactions)

-play a crucial part in the killing of parasites (e.g. enteric
nematodes) because their granules contain a unique, toxic
basic protein and cationic protein (e.g. cathepsin receptors that
bind to IgE are used to help with this task. These cells also
have a limited ability to participate in phagocytosis.
Basophils (release histamine and other chemicals.)
When an infection occurs, mature basophils will
be released from the bone marrow and travel to the site
of infection. When basophils are injured they will
release histamine; this contributes to the inflammatory
response that helps fight invading organisms.
Histamine causes dilation and increased permeability of
capillaries close to the basophil. Injured basophils and
other leukocytes will release another substance called
prostaglandins that contributes to an increased blood
flow to the site of infection.
 The macrophages ("big eaters“)are
larger and live long. Macrophages also
play a key part in alerting the rest of
the immune system of invaders.
Macrophages start out as white blood
cells called monocytes. Monocytes that
leave the blood stream turn into
macrophages.
a. Fixed
b. wandering
Steps of a macrophage ingesting a pathogen:
a. Ingestion through phagocytosis, a phagosome is formed
b. The fusion of lysosomes with the phagosome creates a
phagolysosome; the pathogen is broken down by enzymes
c. Waste material is expelled or assimilated
Parts:
1. Pathogens
2. Phagosome
3. Lysosomes
4. Waste material
5. Cytoplasm
6. Cell membrane
 English Latin

Redness Rubor*
Heat Calor*
Swelling Tumor/Turgor*
Pain Dolor*
Loss of function Functio laesa*
Redness - inflamed tissue appears red due to dilation of
small blood vessels within the damaged area
Heat - an increase in temperature is seen in peripheral
parts of the body, such as the skin. It is due to
increased blood flow to the area as a result of
vascular dilation and the delivery of warm blood to
the area.
Swelling - results from edema (accumulation of fluid in
the extra vascular space)
Interferons (IFNs)
-interfere with viral multiplication
- are natural cell-signaling proteins produced
by the cells of the immune system in response to
challenges such as viruses, parasites and tumor
cells. They belong to the large class of
glycoproteins known as cytokines and are
produced by a wide variety of cells in response to
the presence of double-stranded RNA, a key
indicator of viral infection. Interferons assist the
immune response by inhibiting viral replication
within host cells, activating natural killer cells and
macrophages, increasing antigen presentation to T
lymphocytes, and increasing the resistance of host
cells to viral infection.
Interferons are not virus specific.
-That is , they are effective against a
variety of viruses .

Interferons are species-specific.

-Thatis, they are only effective on the
species of animal that produced them.
 3rd LINE OF DEFENSE
Immunity
-from the Latin word “immunis” which
means “free of burden” or “to exempt”
-refers to the general ability of a host to
resist a particular disease or a specific type of
resistance that is acquired during a person’s
lifetime as a result of exposure to specific foreign
substance
-can be obtained actively or passively by
natural or artificial means
NAAI NAPI AAAI AAPI
 ANTIGENS (Ag) immunogens
-the term is derived from the generation of
anti bodies.
- are foreign substances which stimulate the body
to produce antibodies.
2 Characteristics
a. immunogenicity- ability to stimulate the formation
of antibodies.
b. reactivity- ability to react specifically with antibodies
HAPTEN
-incomplete antigen (no immunogenicity)
EPITOPE
-specific region on the surface of an antigen
VALENCE
-number of epitope sites on the surface of an antigen
 Antibodies (also known as
immunoglobulins, Ig) are gamma
globulin proteins that are found in
blood or other bodily fluids of
vertebrates, and are used by the
immune system to identify and
neutralize foreign objects, such as
bacteria and viruses. They are typically
made of basic structural units—each
with two large heavy chains and two
small light chains—to form monomer,
dimer, pentamer.
Name Types Description Antibody Complexes

Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory

IgA 2
tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization
by pathogens. Also found in saliva, tears, and breast
milk.

Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells

IgD 1
that have not been exposed to antigens. It has been
shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce
antimicrobial factors.

Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release

IgE 1 from mast cells and basophils , and is involved in allergy.
Also protects against parasitic worms

Provides the majority of antibody-based

IgG 4 immunity against invading pathogens. The only

antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive
immunity to fetus.

Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell

IgM 1 mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient
IgG.
1. IgA =accounts for about 10-15% in serum, tears, breast
milk
=prevents the attachment of pathogens to mucosal
membranes
2. IgD =accounts for about 0.2% in serum
=acts as antigen receptors on the surface of B cells

3. IgE =accounts for about 0.002%

= binds to allergens and triggers histamine

4. IgG = accounts for about 80% in the serum

=provides immunity to unborn babies
=protects against circulating bacteria and viruses
and neutralize bacterial toxins

5. IgM =accounts for 5-10% in the serum

=enhances phagocytosis
Lymphocytes - T cells and B cells

White blood cells called lymphocytes

originate in the bone marrow but
migrate to parts of the lymphatic
system such as the lymph nodes,
spleen, and thymus. There are two
main types of lymphatic cells, T cells
and B cells.
 Types of Immune Response
Humoral Immunity Cell-Mediated Immunity
=involves the production =does not involved in
of antibodies capable the production of
of attaching and antibodies but have the
destroying an antigen capacity to attach to
foreign antigen and
destroy it.
 Lymphocyte Specificity

The receptors match only one

specific antigen.
 T cell types
Helper T cells
-present and signal proliferation of B cells
Suppressor T cells
-regulate the immune response by turning it
off when an antigen is no longer present
Natural Killer T cells
-capable of destroying other cells by
producing substances (Lymphokines)

Memory T cells
-have to do with secondary exposure
 lymphokines
1. Cytotoxic factors== destroy antigens directly.

2. Transfer factor==recruits other T cells to the

infection site

3. Macrophage chemotactic factor==attracts

macrophage and destroy antigens by phagocytosis.

4.Macrophage activating factor==increases activity

of macrophages
 B cell types
Memory B cells
-are formed from activated B cells that are specific
to the antigen encountered during the primary immune
response. These cells are able to live for a long time,
and can respond quickly following a second
exposure to the same antigen.

Plasma cells
-are large B cells that have been exposed to
antigen and are producing and secreting large
amounts of antibodies, which assist in the destruction
of microbe by binding to them and making them easier
targets for phagocytes.
It has been said that there are more bacteria contained in a human
mouth than the sum of all the people that have ever lived on the earth.