STUDY OF SIMPLE ECOSYSTEMS

What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and
microorganism communities and the nonliving
environment, interacting as a functional unit. The
organisms living in an ecosystem are broken down into
categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers.

Pond Ecosystem: Definition

A pond ecosystem is a freshwater ecosystem that can
either be temporary or permanent and consists of a wide
variety of aquatic plants and animals interacting with each
other and the surrounding aquatic conditions. The pond
ecosystem falls under the category of a lentic
ecosystem because the water remains stagnant for a
longer period.
What is a pond?
A pond is a quiet body of water that is too small for wave action and too
shallow for major temperature differences from top to bottom. It usually
has a muddy or silty bottom with aquatic plants around the edges and
throughout. However, it is often difficult to classify the differences
between a pond and a lake, since the two terms are artificial and the
ecosystems really exist on a continuum.
Generally, in a pond, the temperature changes with the air temperature
and is relatively uniform. Lakes are similar to ponds, but because they
are larger, temperature layering or stratification takes place in summer
and winter, and these layers turnover in spring and fall.
Ponds get their energy from the sun. As with other ecosystems, plants
are the primary producers. The chlorophyll in aquatic plants captures
energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to organic
compounds and oxygen through the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen
and phosphorus are important nutrients for plants. The addition of these
substances may increase primary productivity. However, too many
nutrients can cause algal blooms, leading to eutrophication.
TYPES OF POND ECOSYSTEM
Garden pond ecosystems: These are man-made artificial pond ecosystems that
comprise ornamental plants and animal species exported from all over the world.

Salt pond ecosystems: These ecosystems are naturally formed at the seaside and
contain brackish water. These are formed due to waterlogging. These can also be
found in rocky areas on the beach called rock pools. Since it contains brackish water,
it can accommodate sea plants and animals.
Freshwater pond ecosystems: These ecosystems are naturally formed due to rainfall or
soil water saturation due to continuous rain. Moreover, they can also be formed due to
the flow of river water into a large and deep depression. These ecosystems serve as a
home to freshwater fishes, amphibians, crustaceans, and many other kinds of wildlife.

Venereal pond ecosystems: These are seasonal ponds that are temporarily formed
during the heaviest rainfall due to the accumulation of water in the depressions in the
ground. With the change in the season, they often turn into desert land.

Mountain pond ecosystems: Naturally formed ponds are found in the mountain
regions. These are formed due to the shifting of rocks and snow melting. They
accommodate rare or endangered aquatic species.
Characteristics of Pond Ecosystem
The following are the main characteristics of the pond ecosystem:
The water in the pond ecosystem is stagnant.
Either natural or artificial boundaries surround the pond ecosystem.
The pond ecosystem exhibits three distinct zones, the littoral
zone, limnetic zone, profundal zone, and benthic zone.

The biotic components of the pond ecosystem occupy different levels in

the pond ecosystem, therefore, avoiding the competition for survival.
Scavengers and decomposers occupy the bottom level, and fish occupy
the middle level. The plants enclose the pond’s boundaries and provide
shelter to small animals and insects.
Pond ecosystems show a wide range of variety in their size.
Stratification in the Pond Ecosystem
Different factors such as distance from the shore, penetration of light,
depth of water, plant and animal species, etc. determine the following
zones found in the pond ecosystem:
Littoral zone: It is the zone closer to the shore. It contains shallow
water and allows easy penetration of light. Rooted plant species occupy
it. Animal species include reeds, crawfish, snails, insects, etc.
Limnetic zone: The limnetic zone refers to the open water of the pond
with an effective penetration of light. This zone is dominated by
phytoplankton. Animal species mainly include small fishes and insects.
Profundal zone: The region of a pond below the limnetic zone is called
a profound zone with no effective light penetration. Some amphibians
and small turtles occupy it.
Benthic zone: The bottom zone of a pond is benthic and is occupied by
a community of decomposers. The decomposers are called benthos.
Abiotic components of the ecosystem
Abiotic components are the non living components of an ecosystem that
matters for aquatic species survival ,following are the abiotic factors of
an ecosystem.
Light:
Light serves as a main abiotic component required for the
photosynthetic activities of the phytoplankton. The littoral zone has the
maximum light penetration, whereas the profound zone has the least
light penetration.
Temperature: As the depth of the pond increases, the temperature of
the water gradually decreases due to the gradual decrease in the light
penetration.
Dissolved oxygen: The amount of dissolved oxygen is maximum in the
shallow water and gradually decreases while moving from the surface
to the depth of the pond.
Dissolved oxygen: The amount of dissolved oxygen is maximum in the
shallow water and gradually decreases while moving from the surface
to the depth of the pond.
Biotic components of the ecosystem
Producers: These include species of rooted, submerged, emerged,
floating plants and algae. The most common filamentous algae found in
ponds is Spirogyra. Mougeotia and Zygnema are some other algae found
in the pond. Azolla, Hydrilla, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, Eichhornia,
Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Jussiaea, etc., are a few examples of green
plants that are found in the pond ecosystem.
Primary consumers: A large population of zooplanktons are the main
primary consumers. Besides these, small herbivores such as snails,
insects, small fishes, tadpoles, and larvae of aquatic animals are the
primary consumers often found in the pond.
Secondary consumers: These include large animal species such as
frogs, big fishes, water snakes, crabs, etc. The consumers of the highest
order might include mammals like water shrews, water voles, herons,
ducks, kingfishers, etc.
Decomposers: These include different types of bacteria and fungi that
feed upon dead and decaying parts of the aquatic species.
FOOD CHAIN IN THE ECOSYSTEM

 The food chain is a sequence of organisms in which each organism

eats the lower member and is being eaten up by the next higher
member.
 Phytoplankton and algae serve as producers that convert solar energy
into chemical energy.
Phytoplankton is being consumed by zooplankton (primary consumers).
 The food chain further proceeds with the small pond species that feed
on zooplankton.
Small pond species are eaten by large pond species.
 A number of bacteria and fungi feed on dead and decaying parts of the
animal species and are therefore called decomposers. Decomposers
convert the organic matter (dead plants and animals) into their
inorganic components that are again utilised by producers, and hence
a continuous flow of energy is maintained.
IMPORTANCE OF POND ECOSYSTEM IN EVNIRONMENT
Some aquatic plants help to improve the water quality by absorbing
pollutants and heavy metals.
The shoreline plants absorb nitrogen and phosphorus and therefore
prevent the algal bloom and maintain the oxygen level in the pond.
Moreover, aquatic plants absorb animal wastes to reduce the nutrient
availability for plants and therefore prevent the growth of algae.
The pond ecosystem is one of the sites for the conservation of
biodiversity as different types of plants and consumers occupy different
strata in the pond and live together by interacting with each other. Ponds
in mountain regions conserve the endangered species.
The pond ecosystem also serves as a source of water for the species that
do not live in the pond.
Pond ecosystems contribute to the beauty of nature as they accommodate
a variety of ornamental flowering plants.
Stratification in the pond ecosystem determines the distribution of
animal species in the pond. It reduces the competition among the species
to some extent.
Pond Ecosystem Producers
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton, literally “wandering plants,” are microscopic algae that
float in the open water and give it a green appearance. They carry out
photosynthesis using carbon dioxide that is dissolved in the water and
release oxygen that is used by the bacteria and animals in the pond.
Phytoplankton are not actually plants-they are protists!

Periphytic algae
Periphytic algae are microscopic algae that attach themselves to
substrates and give the rocks and sticks a greenish brown slimy
appearance. They also carry out photosynthesis and produce oxygen,
often near the bottom of the pond where it can be used by
decomposers.
Submerged plants
Submerged plants grow completely under water.
Floating plants
Floating plants include plants that float on the surface and plants that are
rooted on the bottom of the pond but have leaves and/or stems that float.

Emergent plants
Emergent plants are rooted in shallow water but their stems and leaves
are above water most of the time.

Shore plants
Shore plants grow in wet soil at the edge of the pond.
Consumers
Zooplankton
Zooplankton are microscopic animals that eat phytoplankton or smaller
zooplankton. Some are single-celled animals, tiny crustaceans, or tiny
immature stages of larger animals. Zooplankton float about in the open
water portions of the pond and are important food for some animals.
Invertebrates
Invertebrates include all animals without backbones.
Macroinvertebrates
Macroinvertebrates are big enough to be seen with the naked eye.
Some of them are only found in clean water.

Vertebrates
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. In a pond these might include
fish, frogs, salamanders, and turtles.
Decomposers
Animal waste and dead and decaying plants and animals form detritus
on the bottom of the pond. Decomposers, also known as detritovores,
are bacteria and other organisms that break down detritus into material
that can be used by primary producers, thus returning the detritus to the
ecosystem. As this material decomposes it can serve as a food resource
for microbes and invertebrates.
During decay, microbes living on detritus can pull nutrients from the
overlying water thus acting to improve water quality. In the process of
breaking down detritus, decomposers produce water and carbon
dioxide.
 A pond ecosystem is a community of organisms that live in a pond.
 It is a freshwater ecosystem in which the various organisms rely on
one another.
 The biotic factors of the pond ecosystem are classified into three
categories. They are known as producers, consumers, and
decomposers.
 Algae and hydrophytic plants are the two types of producers.
Consumers are classified as Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary.
Protozoa and Crustacea are the primary consumers.
 Larvae, snakes, frogs, other amphibians, reptiles, and other animals
are secondary consumers.
 Fishes, sharks, and other tertiary consumers are examples.
Hydrophytic bacteria, fungi, and microbes are the three types of
decomposers.
 Abiotic Factors: Non-living things that help the pond ecosystem
survive to include hummus, oxygen in the water, light, heat, and
minerals.
Zest
An ecosystem is a functional unit of the biosphere. The biotic and
abiotic components of any unit of the biosphere interact with each other,
influence each other, and together constitute a dynamic system called an
ecosystem. It can be recognised as a self-regulating and self-sustaining
unit of the landscape. The pond ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that
comprises several submerged, emerged, free-floating plants and algae
living together with different types of animal species. The pond is an
example of an ecosystem involving aquatic animals and plants
interacting with each other in an environment.

Stratification is one of the characteristic features of the pond ecosystem

that determines the availability of essential abiotic factors such as light,
oxygen, minerals, etc., to the different levels of depth in the pond. The
availability of abiotic factors also determines the distribution of
consumers and decomposers according to their need for different abiotic
factors. This article is a sum-up of the different features and components
of the pond ecosystem.
River ecosystems

River ecosystem are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic
(living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic
(nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River ecosystems are
part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams
drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The
major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the
velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater
concentrations of dissolved oxygen ,which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-
moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers
into upland and lowland rivers.

The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but
wider streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from
algae. Anadromous fish are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental
threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and introduced species
A dam produces negative effects that continue down the watershed. The most
important negative effects are the reduction of spring flooding, which damages
wetlands, and the retention of sediment, which leads to the loss of deltaic wetlands.
The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but
wider streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from
algae. Anadromous fish are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental
threats to rivers include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and introduced species
A dam produces negative effects that continue down the watershed. The most important
negative effects are the reduction of spring flooding, which damages wetlands, and the
retention of sediment, which leads to the loss of deltaic wetlands.

River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. Lotic refers to flowing water,
from the Latin lotus, meaning washed. Lotic waters range from springs only a few
centimeters wide to major rivers kilometers in width. Much of this article applies to
lotic ecosystems in general, including related lotic systems such as streams
and springs . Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted with lentic ecosystems ,which involve
relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes, ponds, and wetlands . Together, these two
ecosystems form the more general study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology .

The following unifying characteristics make the ecology of running waters unique
among aquatic habitats: the flow is unidirectional, there is a state of continuous
physical change, and there is a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity at all
scales (microhabitats ), the variability between lotic systems is quite high and the biota
is specialized to live with flow conditions.[
The ecology of the river refers to the relationships that living organisms have with each
other and with their environment – the ecosystem. An ecosystem is the sum of
interactions between plants, animals and microorganisms and between them and non-
living physical and chemical components in a particular natural environment.
River ecosystems have:

flowing water that is mostly unidirectional

a state of continuous physical change
many different (and changing) microhabitats
variability in the flow rates of water
plants and animals that have adapted to live within water flow conditions.

Water flow
Water flow is the main factor that makes river ecology different from other water
ecosystems. This is known as a lotic (flowing water) system. The strength of water
flow varies from torrential rapids to slow backwaters. The speed of water also varies
and is subject to chaotic turbulence. Flow can be affected by sudden water input from
snowmelt, rain and groundwater. Water flow can alter the shape of riverbeds
through erosion and sedimentation, creating a variety of changing habitats.
Substrate
The substrate is the surface on which the river organisms live. It may be inorganic,
consisting of geological material from the catchment area such as boulders, pebbles,
gravel, sand or silt, or it may be organic, including fine particles, leaves, wood, moss
and plants. Substrate is generally not permanent and is subject to large changes
during flooding events.
Light
Light provides energy for photosynthesis, which produces the primary food source
for the river. It also provides refuges for prey species in the shadows it casts. The
amount of light received in a flowing waterway is variable, for example, depending
on whether it’s a stream within a forest shaded by overhanging trees or a wide
exposed river where the Sun has open access to its surface. Deep rivers tend to be
more turbulent, and particles in the water increasingly weaken light penetration as
depth increases.
Temperature

Water temperature in rivers varies with the environment. Water can be heated or
cooled through radiation at the surface and conduction to or from the air and
surrounding substrate. Temperature differences can be significant between the surface
and the bottom of deep, slow-moving rivers. Climate, shading and elevation all affect
water temperature. Species living in these environments are called poikilotherms –
their internal temperature varies to suit their environmental conditions.
Water chemistry

The chemistry of the water varies from one river ecosystem to another. It is often
determined by inputs from the surrounding environment or catchment area but can
also be influenced by rain and the addition of pollution from human sources.
Oxygen is the most important chemical constituent of river systems – most organisms
need it for survival. It enters the water mostly at the surface, but its solubility
decreases as the water temperature increases. Fast, turbulent waters expose a wider
water surface to the air and tend to have lower temperatures – achieving more oxygen
input than slow backwaters. Oxygen is limited if water circulation is poor, animal
activity is high or if there is a large amount of organic decay in the waterway.
Bacteria
Bacteria are present in large numbers in river waters. They play a significant role in
energy recycling. Bacteria decompose organic material into inorganic compounds that
can be used by plants and by other microbes.
Plants
Plants photosynthesise – converting light energy from the Sun into chemical
energy that can be used to fuel organisms’ activities.
Underwater plants
A variety of plants can be found growing within a river system. Some plants are free-
floating while others are rooted in areas of reduced current.
Algae are the most significant source of primary food in most rivers or streams. Most
float freely and are therefore unable to maintain large populations in fast-flowing
water. They build up large numbers in slow-moving rivers or backwaters. Some algae
species attach themselves to objects to avoid being washed away.
Plants are most successful in slower currents. Some plants such as mosses attach
themselves to solid objects. Some plants are free-floating such as duckweed or water
hyacinth. Others are rooted in areas of reduced current where sediment is found.
Water currents provide oxygen and nutrients for plants. Plants protect animals from
the current and predators and provide a food source.
Invertebrates
Invertebrates have no backbone or spinal column and include crayfish, snails,
limpets, clams and mussels found in rivers. A large number of the invertebrates in
river systems are insects. They can be found in almost every available habitat – on
the water surface, on and under stones, in or below the substrate or adrift in the
current. Some avoid high currents by living in the substrate area, while others have
adapted by living on the sheltered downstream side of rocks. Invertebrates rely on
the current to bring them food and oxygen. They are both consumers and prey in
river systems.
Fish
The ability of fish to live in a river system depends on their speed and duration of
that speed – it takes enormous energy to swim against a current. This ability varies
and is related to the area of habitat the fish may occupy in the river. Most fish tend to
remain close to the bottom, the banks or behind obstacles, swimming in the current
only to feed or change location. Some species never go into the current. Most river
systems are typically connected to other lotic systems (springs, wetlands, waterways,
streams, oceans), and many fish have life cycles that require stages in other
systems. Eels, for example, move between freshwater and saltwater. Fish are
important consumers and prey species.
Birds
A large number of birds also inhabit river ecosystems, but they are not tied to the
water as fish are and spend some of their time in terrestrial habitats. Fish and
water invertebrates are an important food source for water birds.
Delhi Ridge
An extension of the 1,500 million years old Aravalli range, Delhi
Ridge is a dry deciduous forestland in the heart of Delhi. Its
prominent role in protecting the capital city against the hot winds of
the Rajasthan deserts has earned it the nickname - 'Lungs of Delhi'.
Spread over almost 8,000 hectares, the ridge is divided into four
zones known as the Northern Ridge, Southern Ridge, Central Ridge
and South Central Ridge. Its whole area houses various historical
monuments, biodiversity parks and a wildlife sanctuary. A home to
more than 100 avian species, the ridge is one of the best spots in
Delhi for birdwatching.

The Delhi Ridge is a prominent geological feature and biodiversity

hotspot located in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. It is a
part of the larger Aravalli Range system, one of the oldest mountain
ranges in the world, dating back millions of years. The Aravalli Range
is spread across states like Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat
The ever-growing and ever-changing Delhi, the country's capital city,
can be a stifling place sometimes. Thankfully, the city has its green
pockets, because of which the city is livable to a great extent. One
such green pocket is the Delhi Ridge, also known as the Delhi
Aravalli Ridge.

The Delhi Ridge is a prominent geological feature and biodiversity

hotspot located in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. It is
a part of the larger Aravalli Range system, one of the oldest mountain
ranges in the world, dating back millions of years. The Aravalli
Range is spread across states like Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan and
Gujarat.
The Delhi chapter of the Aravalli Range comprises several
protected forests, including the Northern Ridge (North
Campus of the Delhi University), Southern Ridge, and
Tughlaqabad Ridge. These three collectively form the Delhi
Ridge.

It is imperative to note that the Delhi Ridge serves as a critical

green lung for the city, and something the city can't do
without.
Looking at Delhi, the megapolis that it is today, it is almost
hard to imagine a place like this, with millions of people, as a
place with a diverse range of flora and fauna. All thanks to the
city's green pockets.
Northern Ridge area, near Vidhan Sabha in North Delhi, is
easily one of the most beautiful, lush and refreshing places in
Delhi. The ridge area, with a slightly elevated topography,
makes for a very pretty drive. No wonder, many residents
love to come out here on the weekends.

A quick stroll inside the Ridge can be quite refreshing,

especially since the foliage is pretty dense here. Shaded
grounds, pretty walking trails, what more do we need for
a nice day of picnic? It is a popular spot for hiking, nature
walks, and environmental education programs.
Due to its ecological importance, there have been numerous
efforts to protect and conserve the Delhi Ridge. For this
purpose, the Delhi Ridge was declared a reserved forest area.
But unfortunately, despite many conservation
efforts, the Delhi Ridge faces several challenges.
Urban encroachment, deforestation, and pollution
to name some. Somehow, we still lag behind
when it comes to balancing urban development
with nature conservation. May we not forget or
overlook Delhi Ridge's role as a crucial
geological, ecological, and historical feature in
the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
Thank you