Development Studies

Professor Dr. Nazmul Ahsan Kalimullah

Department of Public Administration
University of Dhaka
&
Chairman
JANIPOP- Jatiya Nirbachon Parjabekkhon Parishad
(National Election Observation Council)

August, 2013
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 What is Development Studies?

• Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch of social

science. It is (to a greater or lesser extent) about cross-
disciplinary insights. It increasingly seeks to draw on the
insights of more than one discipline but does not necessarily
always achieve this satisfactorily.
• Development studies is (to a large extent) about applied or
instrumental research. It tends not to be interested in
knowledge generation for its own sake, but for its applied or
instrumental value. It is concerned with real-world problems
(even when theorizing). Many members of the DS
‘community’ seek to ‘make a difference’.

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• Each of these three characteristics represents elements
within the 3x3x3 cube.
• The first, about the dimensions of development, can be sub-
divided into development (a) as a process of change; (b) as a
policy and/or practice-related evaluative outcome; or (c) as a
dominant discourse.
• This could be viewed as a continuum from arguably value-free
(development as change) at one end to research that is more
explicitly value-laden (development as a policy-related and/or
practice-related evaluative outcome) at the other end.
• We would argue that these are the three discernable
definitions of ‘development’.

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• The first is historical and long-term and arguably relatively
value-free – emphasizing ‘development’ as a process of change.
• The second is policy-related and evaluative or indicator-led, is
based on value judgments (relating, for example, to ‘good’
change), and has short- to medium-term time horizons –
development as the achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), for example.
• The third is post-modernist, drawing attention to the
ethnocentric and ideologically loaded Western conceptions of
‘development’ and raising the possibilities of alternative
conceptions.
• A common theme within most definitions is that ‘development’
encompasses ‘change’ in a variety of aspects of the human
condition. Indeed, one of the simplest definitions of
‘development’ is probably Chambers’ notion of ‘good change’.
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• The second dimension of the development cube, ‘about cross-
disciplinary insights’, can also be placed in a continuum of approaches
– multi-disciplinary, inter-disciplinary, or transdisciplinary research –
denoting an increasing level of integration between constituent
disciplines.
• Development Studies seeks to be cross-disciplinary.
• Cross-disciplinarity is a generic term meaning any kind of mixing of
disciplines.
• Multi-disciplinarity entails researchers in teams conducting research
from their own disciplinary viewpoint but where the team as a whole
includes researchers from a number of disciplines.
• Inter-disciplinarity is a step further towards integration rather than
co-existence and means that the different disciplines are still
discernable but some level of deeper integration is evident.
Individuals (or teams) seek to integrate concepts and methodologies
from the outset. Most of the individual researchers will be familiar
with at least a second discipline.
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 Nature of Development Studies

• Trans-disciplinarity relates to complete integration of two or

more disciplines with the possibility of forming a new
discipline. As an example, the field-research method known
as ethnography originates in anthropology but took insights
from psychology, philosophy, sociology, and other disciplines.
• A final option in this classification is ‘non-disciplinarity’, which
represents a deliberate attempt to move away from the
notion that one should work within well-defined disciplinary
boundaries – a position which might be taken by those
working in a post-modernist perspective.

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• If the first dimension is the focus – i.e. ‘development’ (however
defined) – and the second dimension of the cube is the approach
– i.e. cross-disciplinarity – the third dimension of the
development cube is the aim or purpose.
• This can again be placed within a continuum of purpose – from
research with limited instrumentality (such as theory/
abstraction) at one end of the continuum to research with high
instrumentality at the other (research which is focused on policy,
practice, or on an action-based approach), with combinations of
the two in between.
• Many people are attracted to Development Studies by some
sense of concern and commitment about social justice and the
prevailing levels of global poverty and inequality. One avenue for
this commitment is a focus on informing policy.

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 Definition of Development Studies
Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch of social science
which addresses issues of concern to developing countries. It
has historically placed a particular focus on issues related to
social and economic development, and its relevance may
therefore extend to communities and regions outside of the
developing world.
As a multi-disciplinary field, Development Studies incorporates
scholarly contributions from the fields of anthropology,
criminology, demography, ecology, economics, geography,
history, international relations, philosophy, political science,
public management, and sociology. Other interdisciplinary or
emerging fields that have made their mark include area studies,
cultural studies, epidemiology, ethnic studies, migration studies,
pedagogy, postcolonialism, and women's studies.
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 Emergence of Development Studies
 The emergence of development studies as an academic
discipline in the second half of the twentieth century is in large
part due to increasing concern about economic prospects for the
third world after decolonisation.
 In the immediate post-war period, development economics, a
branch of economics, arose out of previous studies in colonial
economics.
 By the 1960s, an increasing number of development economists
felt that economics alone could not fully address issues such as
political effectiveness and educational provision.
 Development studies arose as a result of this, initially aiming to
integrate ideas of politics and economics. Since then, it has
become an increasingly inter- and multi-disciplinary subject,
encompassing a variety of social scientific fields.
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In recent years the use of political economy analysis- the
application of the analytical techniques of economics- to try
and assess and explain political and social factors that either
enhance or limit development has become increasingly
widespread as a way of explaining the success or failure of
reform processes.
The era of modern development is commonly deemed to have
commenced with the inauguration speech of Harry S. Truman in
1949.
In Point Four of his speech, with reference to Latin America and
other poor nations, he said that ‘for the first time in history,
humanity possess[ed] the knowledge and skill to relieve the
suffering of these people’.
But development studies has since also taken an interest in
lessons of past development experiences of Western countries.
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More recently, the emergence of human security – a new,
people-oriented approach to understanding and addressing
global security threats – has led to a growing recognition of a
relationship between security and development.
Human security argues that inequalities and insecurity in one
state or region have consequences for global security and
that it is thus in the interest of all states to address underlying
development issues.
This relationship with studies of human security is but one
example of the interdisciplinary nature of development
studies.
Students of development studies often choose careers in
international organizations such as the United Nations or the
World Bank, non-governmental organizations, private sector
development consultancy firms, and research centres.
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 Subject Matter of Development Studies
Area Studies Human security
Demography Migration Studies
Demographics Pedagogy
Development Communication Political Science
Development Theory Public Administration
Ecology Public Health
Economic Development Social Policy
Engineering Sociology
Environmental Studies Urbanization
Geography Gender Studies
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 Area Studies
Area studies are interdisciplinary fields of research and
scholarship pertaining to particular geographical,
national/federal, or cultural regions.
The term exists primarily as a general description for what are,
in the practice of scholarship, many heterogeneous fields of
research, encompassing both the social sciences and the
humanities.

Demography
Demo” means “the people” and “graphy” means “measurement”.
Demography is the statistical study of human populations. It can be
a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic
living population, i.e., one that changes over time or space.
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It encompasses the study of the size, structure, and distribution of
these populations, and spatial and/or temporal changes in
them in response to birth, migration, aging and death.
The term demographics refers to characteristics of a population.
Demographic analysis can be applied to whole societies or to
groups defined by criteria such as education, nationality,
religion and ethnicity. Institutionally, demography is usually
considered a field of sociology, though there are a number of
independent demography departments.
Demographics are the quantifiable statistics of a given population.
Demographics is also used to identify the study of quantifiable
subsets within a given population which characterize that
population at a specific point in time.
These types of data are used widely in public opinion polling and
marketing.
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 Development Communication
Development communication has been defined, alternatively, as
either a type of marketing and public opinion research used to
develop effective communication, or the use of communication
to promote social development.
As the former, it often includes computerized linguistic analysis of
responses to qualitative surveys and may involve psychological
"right brain" (emotional) research techniques.
In the latter definition, development communication refers to the
practice of systematically applying the processes, strategies and
principles of communication to bring about positive social
change by supporting sustainable change in development
operations; it aims to do this through engaging key stakeholders,
establishing conducive environments, assessing risks and
opportunities, disseminating information, and inducing positive
behavioral and social change. 17
 Development Theory
Development theory is a conglomeration of theories about how
desirable change in society is best achieved.
Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and
approaches.
Modernization theory is used to analyze in which way
modernization processes in societies take place.
The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and
which constitute obstacles for economic development.
The idea is that development assistance targeted at those
particular aspects can lead to modernization of 'traditional' or
'backward' societies.
Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to
modernization theory.
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 Structuralism
Structuralism is a development theory which focuses on
structural aspects which impede the economic growth of
developing countries.
The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy
from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern,
urbanized manufacturing and service economy.
Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include
major government intervention in the economy to fuel the
industrial sector, known as Import Substitution
Industrialization (ISI).
This structural transformation of the developing country is
pursued in order to create an economy which in the end
enjoys self-sustaining growth.
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 Dependency theory
Dependency theory is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking,
and shares many of its core ideas. Dependency theory states that
poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for
developed nations, without which the developed nations could not
have the standard of living which they enjoy. Also, developed nations
will try to maintain this situation and try to counter attempts by
developing nations to reduce the influence of developed nations.
The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier
theory of development which held that all societies progress through
similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are
thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some
time in the past, and that therefore the task in helping the
underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this
supposed common path of development, by various means such as
investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the
world market.
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 Basic Needs Theory
The basic needs approach was introduced by the International
Labour Organization in 1976, mainly in reaction to prevalent
modernisation- and structuralism-inspired development
approaches, which were not achieving satisfactory results in
terms of poverty alleviation and combating inequality in
developing countries.
It tried to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for
long-term physical well-being. The poverty line which follows
from this, is the amount of income needed to satisfy those
basic needs.
The approach has been applied in the sphere of development
assistance, to determine what a society needs for subsistence,
and for poor population groups to rise above the poverty line.
Basic needs theory does not focus on investing in economically
productive activities. 21
Post-development theory is a school of thought which questions
the idea of national economic development altogether.
According to post-development scholars, the goal of improving
living standards leans on arbitrary claims as to the desirability
and possibility of that goal. Post-development theory arose in
the 1980s and 1990s.
Sustainable development is economic development in such a way
that it meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
There exist more definitions of sustainable development, but they
have in common that they all have to do with the carrying
capacity of the earth and its natural systems and the challenges
faced by humanity.
Sustainable development can be broken up into environmental
sustainability, economic sustainability and sociopolitical
sustainability. 22
Human development theory is a theory which uses ideas from different
origins, such as ecology, sustainable development, feminism and welfare
economics.
It wants to avoid normative politics and is focused on how social capital and
instructional capital can be deployed to optimize the overall value of
human capital in an economy.
Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq are the most well-known human
development theorists.
The work of Sen is focused on capabilities: what people can do, and be. It is
these capabilities, rather than the income or goods that they receive (as in
the Basic Needs approach), that determine their well being.
This core idea also underlies the construction of the Human Development
Index, a human-focused measure of development pioneered by the UNDP
in its Human Development Reports.
The economic side of Sen's work can best be categorized under welfare
economics, which evaluates the effects of economic policies on the well-
being of peoples. Sen wrote the influential book 'Development as freedom'
which added an important ethical side to development economics.
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 Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their
environment, such as the interactions organisms have with each other
and with their abiotic environment.
Topics of interest to ecologists include the diversity, distribution, amount
(biomass), number (population) of organisms, as well as competition
between them within and among ecosystems.
Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including
organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living
components of their environment.
Ecology is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology and Earth science.
Ecology is a human science as well. There are many practical applications of
ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource
management (agroecology, agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, fisheries),
city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, basic and
applied science, and human social interaction (human ecology).
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 Economic Development
Economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerned
actions of policy makers and communities that promote the
standard of living and economic health of a specific area.
Economic development can also be referred to as the quantitative
and qualitative changes in the economy.
Such actions can involve multiple areas including development of
human capital, critical infrastructure, regional competitiveness,
environmental sustainability, social inclusion, health, safety,
literacy, and other initiatives.
Economic development differs from economic growth. Whereas
economic development is a policy intervention endeavor with aims
of economic and social well-being of people, economic growth is a
phenomenon of market productivity and rise in GDP.
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 Engineering
Engineering is the application of scientific, economic, social, and
practical knowledge in order to design, build, and maintain
structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and
processes.
It may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an
appropriate solution to a problem or objective.
The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and encompasses
a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a
more specific emphasis on particular areas of technology and
types of application.
Engineering, much like other science, is a broad discipline which is
often broken down into several sub-disciplines.
These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of
engineering work.
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 Environmental Studies
Environmental studies is the interdisciplinary academic field which
systematically studies human interaction with the environment in
the interests of solving complex problems.
It is a broad field of study that includes also the natural environment,
built environment, and the sets of relationships between them.
The field encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and
environmental science, as well as associated subjects such as
ethics, policy, politics, law, economics, philosophy, environmental
sociology and environmental justice, planning, pollution control
and natural resource management.
The Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences (AESS) was
founded in 2008 as the first professional association in the
interdisciplinary field of environmental studies in the United
States.
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 Geography
Geography is the science that studies the lands, the features, the
inhabitants, and the phenomena of the Earth. A literal translation
would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person
to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes (276-194 BC).
Four historical traditions in geographical research are the spatial
analysis of the natural and the human phenomena (geography as
the study of distribution), the area studies (places and regions),
the study of the man-land relationship, and the research in the
earth sciences.
Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline
that foremost seeks to understand the Earth and all of its human
and natural complexities - not merely where objects are, but how
they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called
"the world discipline" and "the bridge between the human and
the physical science". 29
 Human Security
Human security is an emerging paradigm for understanding global
vulnerabilities whose proponents challenge the traditional notion
of national security by arguing that the proper referent for security
should be the individual rather than the state.
Human security holds that a people-centered view of security is
necessary for national, regional and global stability.
The concept emerged from a post-Cold War, multi-disciplinary
understanding of security involving a number of research fields,
including development studies, international relations, strategic
studies, and human rights.
The United Nations Development Programme's 1994 Human
Development Report is considered a milestone publication in the
field of human security, with its argument that insuring "freedom
from want" and "freedom from fear" for all persons is the best
path to tackle the problem of global insecurity. 30
 Migration Studies
Migration studies is the academic study of human migration.
Migration Studies is an interdisciplinary field which includes
anthropology, history, economics, law, musicology and
postcolonial studies.
Migration Information Source is a leading journal in the field,
covering modern human migration.
As a rapidly growing field, numerous journals are dedicated to this
field of study.
Human migration is movement by humans from one place to
another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups.
Historically this movement was nomadic, often causing significant
conflict with the indigenous population and their displacement
or cultural assimilation.
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 Pedagogy
Pedagogy is the science and art of education, specifically instructional
theory. An instructor develops conceptual knowledge and manages the
content of learning activities in pedagogical settings.
Modern pedagogy has been strongly influenced by the cognitivism of
Piaget, 1926, 1936/1975; the social-interactionist theories of Bruner,
1960, 1966, 1971, 1986; and the social and cultural theories of Vygotsky,
1962.
These theorists have laid a foundation for pedagogy where sequential
development of individual mental processes, such as recognize, recall,
analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate, are scaffolded.
Students learn as they internalize the procedures, organization, and
structures encountered in social contexts as their own schema.
The learner requires assistance to integrate prior knowledge with new
knowledge.
Children must also develop metacognition, or the ability to learn how to
learn. 32
 Political Science
Political science is a social science discipline concerned with the
study of the state, nation, government, and politics and policies
of government.
Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with
the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political
systems and political behavior, culture.
Political scientists "see themselves engaged in revealing the
relationships underlying political events and conditions, and from
these revelations they attempt to construct general principles
about the way the world of politics works.“
Political science intersects with other fields; including economics,
law, sociology, history, anthropology, public administration,
public policy, national politics, international relations,
comparative politics, psychology, political organization, and
political theory. 33
 Public Administration
Public administration is the organization and management of
men and materials to achieve the purpose of the government.
It’s central idea is the co-operative rational action.
Public administration is concerned with the conduct of public
affairs, the management of the public’s business and the
implementation of public policies.
The management of public programs is known as public
administration. It is the means of translating politics into
reality that citizens see everyday.
Scholars and practitioners have analyzed ‘public administration’
from two perspectives- as the process of managing public
affairs and as an academic discipline.

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 Public Health
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life
and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed
choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and
individuals.“
It is concerned with threats to health based on population health analysis.
The population in question can be as small as a handful of people, or as
large as all the inhabitants of several continents.
The dimensions of health can encompass "a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity".
Public health incorporates the interdisciplinary approaches of
epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health,
community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy,
insurance medicine and occupational health (respectively occupational
medicine) are other important subfields.
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 Social Policy
Social policy primarily refers to guidelines, principles, legislation and
activities that affect the living conditions conducive to human welfare.
The Department of Social Policy at the London School of Economics defines
social policy as "an interdisciplinary and applied subject concerned with
the analysis of societies' responses to social need.
It seeks to foster in its students a capacity to understand theory and
evidence drawn from a wide range of social science disciplines, including
economics, sociology, psychology, geography, history, law, philosophy
and political science.
Social Policy is focused on those aspects of the economy, society and policy
that are necessary to human existence and the means by which they can
be provided.
These basic human needs include: food and shelter, a sustainable and safe
environment, the promotion of health and treatment of the sick, the
care and support of those unable to live a fully independent life; and the
education and training of individuals to a level that enables them fully to
participate in their society". 36
 Sociology
Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior and its origins,
development, organizations, and institutions.
It is a social science which uses various methods of empirical investigation and
critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions,
social structure and functions.
A goal for many sociologists is to conduct research which may be applied directly
to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the
theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the
micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems
and the social structure.
The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class,
culture, race and ethnicity, gender and sexuality, social mobility, religion,
secularization, law, and deviance.
As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social
structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to
further subjects, such as health, medical, military and penal institutions, the
Internet, environmental sociology, political economy and the role of social
activity in the development of scientific knowledge. 37
 Urbanization
Urbanization is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of rural
migration and even suburban concentration into cities, particularly
the very large ones.
The United Nations projected that half of the world's population
would live in urban areas at the end of 2008.
By 2050 it is predicted that 64.1% and 85.9% of the developing and
developed world respectively will be urbanized.
Urbanization is closely linked to modernization, industrialization, and
the sociological process of rationalization.
Urbanization can describe a specific condition at a set time, i.e. the
proportion of total population or area in cities or towns, or the
term can describe the increase of this proportion over time.
So the term urbanization can represent the level of urban
development relative to overall population, or it can represent the
rate at which the urban proportion is increasing.
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 Gender Studies
Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study and academic field
devoted to gender identity and gendered representation as central
categories of analysis.
This field includes women's studies (concerning women, feminism,
gender, and politics), men's studies, and LGBT studies. Sometimes,
gender studies is offered together with study of sexuality.
These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature,
language, history, political science, sociology, anthropology,
cinema, media studies, human development, law, and medicine. It
also analyzes race, ethnicity, location, nationality, and disability.
Women's studies, also known as feminist studies, is an
interdisciplinary academic field that explores politics, society,
media, and history from women's and/or feminist perspectives.
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 The Critic of Development Studies
• Recent years have seen numerous attacks on Development Studies, of which
three stand out.
• The first might be called a ‘delivery’ critique: that Development Studies is
irrelevant, since much of the ‘Third World’ is no better off than in 1950s or
even before.
• The second is the ‘neo-colonial’ or post-development critique: that DS is a
neo-colonial discourse which frames, shapes, and controls the ‘Third World’.
• The third is the ‘depoliticization critique’: that Development Studies is
apolitical, or even that it is a vehicle for depoliticisation, through the
expansion of Development Studies as a politically neutral technocratic
application.
• The first critique relates closely to the neo-liberal critique and is based on the
argument that Development Studies (read: Development Economics) is
predicated on ‘bad economics’ (state-led development, import substitution,
infant-industry protection, etc.) and has led to bad consequences, as has
been argued by economists such as Milton Friedman, Anne Krueger, and
Deepak Lal, among others. The problem was the economics of Development
Studies. 40
• The first critique relates closely to the neo-liberal critique and is
based on the argument that Development Studies (read:
Development Economics) is predicated on ‘bad economics’
(state-led development, import substitution, infant-industry
protection, etc.) and has led to bad consequences, as has been
argued by economists such as Milton Friedman, Anne Krueger,
and Deepak Lal, among others. The problem was the economics
of Development Studies.
• The second critique relates to Michel Foucault’s notions of
knowledge and power in the context of post-development. This
posited Development Studies as an imperialist discourse which
sought to impose a Western view of ‘development’ as
modernity on the ‘Third World’ (a position sustained by writers
such as Arturo Escobar, Gustavo Esteva, and Wolfgang Sachs,
among many others). Development Studies was in itself the
problem. 41
• The third relates to the extended power of the state and
‘technification’ of development as a set of concepts and
techniques to be applied through the planning state.
• This problem resonates with Foucault’s political technologies:
political problems rephrased in politically neutral, technocratic
language, while state functionaries or development
professionals are typically the ‘experts’ (as writers such as
Robert Chambers, James Ferguson, and John Harriss have
argued.
The Future of Development Studies
 Development Studies could expand to be more global in
perspective, rather than maintaining its primary focus on
‘them’ and deprivation in the South.
 The case is that the concerns of Development Studies extend
beyond developing countries, since there are poverty and
wealth in every country. 42
 Inequalities within high-income countries mean that the types
of policy analysis applied to poverty-reduction programs in
developing countries have a broader relevance.
 All countries are ‘developing’ in some sense of the term, and
industrialized countries experience structural change of a
socio-economic nature just as much as the developing
countries. So cross-disciplinary analysis, which is familiar to DS
researchers, is also relevant to industrialized countries.
 A number of other socio-economic issues in industrialized
countries are also associated with the concerns of DS. For
example, problems of ‘over-development’ in the industrialised
countries, such as unhealthy diet and obesity, have complex
socio-economic causes and effects.

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High consumption levels with their associated high CO2
emissions in the industrialised countries have an impact not
only on these countries, but also on developing countries
through the global environmental effects of the emissions.
Other examples of increasing inter-connectedness between
industrialised and developing countries such as the
globalisation of terrorism, security issues, and pandemics (HIV
and AIDS and avian flu, for example) mean that a cross-
disciplinary approach to research and policy analysis is
increasingly relevant in an international context.

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