WATER TREATMENT

Objective of Water Treatment

• To produce an adequate and continuous
supply of water that is chemically,
bacteriologically and aesthetically pleasing.
Water treatment must produce water that
is :
• Palatable (no unpleasant taste)
• Safe (does not contain pathogens or chemicals
harmful to the consumer)
• Clear (free from suspended solids and turbidity)
• Colourless and Odourless (aesthetic to drink)
• Reasonably soft (allows consumers to wash clothes,
dishes without excessive quantities of detergents or
soap)
• Non-corrosive (to protect pipe work and prevent
leaching of metals from tanks or pipes)
• Low organic content
 Water Purification Processes

Water Purification Processes

Engineered
Natural Systems Systems
Self-purification
Mechanism Physical Processes
Physical Processes Chemical Processes
Chemical Processes Biological
Biological Processes
Processes Rate and extent
Rate and Extent are managed by
depend on controlling the
System System variables
Variables

System Variables – Hydraulic Characteristics eg., volume, rate, turbulence of flow;

physical characteristics of bottom and bank material; variations in sunlight and
temperature; chemical nature of natural water
• Major physical processes involved in self-purification of
watercourses are dilution, sedimentation and re-
suspension, filtration, gas transfer and heat transfer
• Natural water courses contain many dissolved minerals
and gases that interact chemically with one another in
complex and varied ways. Oxidation-Reduction,
dissolution-precipitation and other chemical
conversions may alternately aid or obstruct natural
purification processes of natural water systems
• Biological processes have found little use in the
treatment of potable water supplies because of the
low levels of biodegradable organics in raw water.
However biological processes are used extensively in
wastewater treatment
 CONVENTIONAL WATER
TREATMENT PLANT DISTRIBUTION
RESERVOIR

FLASH
FILTRATION
RAW WATER FROM SOURCE MIXER
CLEAR
PRE
COAGULATION - WATER
SCREENS SEDIMENTATION SEDIMENTATION
FLOCCULATION WELL

ST
RE
AM

CHLORINATION
SLUDGE
SLUDGE

FILTER BACKWASH WATER

SCREENINGS FOR
BURIAL/DISPOSAL/INCINE
RATION/GRINDING
Lake (or) Reservoir Supply

River Supply
Aeration
 Aeration
• Process sometimes used in preparing potable water
(often groundwater's)
• Removal of
– undesirable gases dissolved in water (degasification)
– convert undesirable substances to a more manageable
form by addition of Oxygen (oxidation)
• Undesirable gases
– Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – excess amount of CO2 in water
results in corrosive water
– Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) – imparts unpleasant taste and
odour
• Undesirable Substances
– Volatile Liquids (e.g., Humic acids), Phenols –
excessive quantities can be reduced to more
manageable levels
– Iron and Manganese (both Iron and
Manganese are soluble in significant
quantities only in +2 oxidation state i.e., Fe+2
and Mn+2). Upon contact with oxygen (or
any other oxidizing agents), both Ferrous
Iron and Manganese are oxidized to higher
valences, forming new ionic complexes that
are not soluble and removed as precipitate
after aeration
Iron and Manganese
 widely distributed in nature
 present in Groundwater and Hypolimnion of
Stratified Lakes
 significantly soluble in +2 state i.e., Fe2+ and
Mn2+
 Upon contact with oxygen or any other
oxidizing agent, Fe2+ and Mn2+ are oxidized to
higher states – new ionic complexes are
formed which are not soluble
o 4Fe2+ + O2 +10H2O 4Fe(OH)3 + 8H+
o 2Mn2+ + O2 +2H2O 2MnO2 + 4H+
 Water dispersed in Air

Gas Film Gas Film

Bulk Bulk
Liquid Liquid
Bulk Gas
Ct > Cs Ct < Cs

Liquid Film Liquid Film

(super saturated) (under saturated)

Desorption Absorption

Cs – saturation concentration of gas in water at a given temperature (max. conc. In absorption)

Ct – conc. At time t
Fountains
Cascade Aerators
 Air dispersed in Water

Liquid Film Gas Film

Bulk Bulk
Gas Gas
Bulk Water
Ct > Cs Ct < Cs

Gas Film Liquid Film

(super saturated) (under saturated)

Desorption Absorption

Cs – saturation concentration of gas in water at a given temperature (max. conc. In absorption)

Ct – conc. At time t
Solids Separation
• Discreet Particles – size, shape and specific
gravity do not change with time
• Flocculating Particles – Particles whose surface
properties are such that they aggregate, or
coalesce, with other particles upon contact,
thus changing shape, size and perhaps specific
gravity with each contact are called
flocculating particles.
• Dilute Suspensions – Suspensions in which the
concentration of particles is not sufficient to
cause significant displacement of water as
they settle
• Concentrated Suspensions – Suspensions in
which the concentration of particles is too
great
 Type-I Settling
Discreet Particles in Dilute Suspension
 Density of
Force of Gravity particle Fb

Buoyant Force Volume of

particle

Driving Force

Drag Force
Drag force = Driving Force
Stoke’s
Equation
 diameter, do

t=0
A
Generalizations:
 All particles with diameter ≥ d0 and such that
their settling velocities are ≥ v0 will arrive at
diameter, dp sampling port in time t0.
 Particle with diameter dp< d0 will have vp < vo
B and will arrive at or pass sampling port in time t0,
provided its original position was at or below a point
Zo Zp
 In a uniformly mixed suspension, fraction of
particles of size dp with settling velocity vp which will
Zp arrive at or pass the sampling port in time t0 will be
Zp/Z0 = vp/v0 . Thus removal efficiency of any size
particle is the ratio of the settling velocity of that
particle to the settling velocity v0 defined by Z0/t0
t = t0
B A Sampling port
Example:
A settling analysis is run on a type-1 suspension. The column is 1.8 m
deep, and data are shown below. What will be the theoretical efficiency
in a settling basin with a loading rate of 25 m3/day.m2 (25 m/day)?

Time, 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

min
Conc., 300 189 180 168 156 111 78 27
mg/L

C0
 Solution:

Calculate mass fraction remaining and corresponding settling rates

Time, min 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

Mass Fraction 189 180 168 156 111 78 27

Remaining, 300 300 300 300 300 300 300
Ci/C0 = 0.63 = 0.6 = 0.56 = 0.52 = 0.37 = 0.26 = 0.09

1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8

60 80 100 130 200 240 420
m/min = 3.0 = 2.25 = 1.8 = 1.38 = 0.9 = 0.75 = 0.428

Determine v0 = 25 m3/ m2.day = 1.74 x 10-2 m/min.

Determine ∆x.vi

∆x vi ∆x . vi
0.1 0.3 0.03

0.1 0.5 0.05

0.1 0.7 0.07

0.1 0.85 0.085

0.14 1.2 0.168

= 0.54 ∑∆x . vi 0.403

0.46+0.23 = 0.69 =
69%

Therefore, Overall removal efficiency = 68%

Type-2 Settling
 Iso - removal lines from settling analysis

Settling Column
Jar Test Apparatus
Sedimentation Tanks
Long rectangular
– Plain Sedimentation tanks with
horizontal flow (or)
Circular tanks with
radial flow
– Sedimentation aided with Coagulation
Long Rectangular Tanks
 Commonly used in water treatment for processing large flows
 Hydraulically more stable
 flow control through large volumes is easier with this configuration
Typical designs – Length ~ 2 to 4 times Width and 10 – 20 times depth
Bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving
sludge scraper, continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge
hopper where it is pumped out periodically.
 Four Functional Zones in a Rectangular tank
• Inlet Zone – Baffles intercept the incoming
water and spread the flow uniformly both
horizontally and vertically across the tank
• Outlet Zone – water flows upward and over the
outlet weir
• Sludge Zone – which extends from the bottom
of the tank to just above the scraper
mechanism
• Settling Zone – which occupies the remaining
volume of the tank
 h

H
DIRECTION OF FLOW

OUTLET ZONE
ZONE

v0
SETTLING ZONE
INLET

SLUDGE ZONE

L
Assumptions in the design of horizontal
sedimentation tank:
• Particles within the settling or sedimentation zone,
settle exactly in the same manner as they do in a
quiescent zone
• Flow is horizontal and steady and velocity is uniform in
all parts of settling zone for a time equal to the
detention period
• Concentration of suspended particles of each size is
same at all points of the vertical cross-section at the
inlet end
• A particle is removed when it reaches the bottom of
the settling zone
 Sedimentation aided with
Coagulation
• Small, less dense particulate matter may be
removed by sedimentation only with extended
detention times not available in many
situations. Colloidal materials form very stable
water suspensions. Colloidal particles may
consist of clay and silt, color bodies,
precipitated iron or manganese oxides, and
bacteria and algae.
• Coagulation and flocculation are the mechanisms by which
particulate and colloidal materials are removed from water in
the process of clarification.
• Coagulation can be defined as charge neutralization which
results in the destabilization of suspensions of particles in the
colloidal size range (1-500 milli microns) allowing
agglomeration to occur. Colloidal particles have a negative
electrical charge. This net negative charge results in stable
suspensions due to the repulsive forces between each
particle. As the halo of net negative charge surrounding each
particle is neutralized, it is stripped away reducing the
effective particle diameter. One may easily visualize the
particle agglomeration that may occur through natural
particle collision, helped by slow mixing, once the charge is
neutralized and the effective diameter of the particles is
reduced.
• In most waters requiring charge neutralization,
it is a net negative charge that must be
neutralized. Therefore, the term coagulant is
applied only to cationic chemicals.
• The extent of particle agglomeration due to
coagulation cannot be predicted. In some
circumstances very small numbers of particles
may agglomerate to form microfloc. The
coagulated material may or may not be
agglomerated enough to achieve good settling
without flocculation. A high density macrofloc
may not need further treatment, while
microfloc and low density macrofloc will likely
require flocculation for optimum clarification.
• The extent of particle agglomeration due to
coagulation cannot be predicted. In some
circumstances very small numbers of particles
may agglomerate to form microfloc. The
coagulated material may or may not be
agglomerated enough to achieve good settling
without flocculation. A high density macrofloc
may not need further treatment, while
microfloc and low density macrofloc will likely
require flocculation for optimum clarification.
• Flocculation can be defined as the mechanism by
which microfloc or low density macrofloc particles
are further agglomerated resulting in rapid settling
floc bodies and enhanced finished water quality.
• Inorganic coagulants have been used to clarify water
for years. Trivalent ions such as aluminum and ferric
iron coagulate colloidal suspensions by charge
neutralization and by promoting agglomeration.
Therefore, in addition to their coagulating ability,
they are also capable of further flocculation through
their ability to form hydrated gelatinous hydroxides,
at appropriate pH levels. These gelatinous hydroxides
entrap destabilized particles as they sweep through
the water under the force of gravity.
• Polymeric coagulants, or that class of polyelectrolyte
with relatively low molecular weight (compared to
flocculant polymers) and a high cationic charge
density, are finding wide application as coagulants in
water clarification. Polymeric coagulants also have
some ability to cause flocculation through a
mechanism quite dissimilar to that of the inorganic
coagulants. Flocculation by polymer coagulants is
brought about via their molecular weight (M.W.)
which is very high as compared to inorganic
coagulants.
• Molecular weight, for the purposes of this discussion,
may be pictured as representing polymer chain
length. The greater the M.W., the greater the chain
length and the greater the flocculating ability. Longer
chain length allows bridging, or attaching to, greater
numbers of particles. However, coagulant polymers
have relatively low molecular weights and
flocculating ability when compared to the high
molecular weight cationic, nonionic and anionic
flocculant polymers. Therefore, polymeric coagulants
have the ability to enhance flocculation only to a
limited degree.
 Chemicals used for Coagulation
Sl.No Coagulant Chemical Formula Molecular
Wt.
1. Filter Alum (or) Alum Al2(SO4)3.18H2O 666.42
2. Iron Salts FeSO4.7H2O 278.0
(i)Ferrous Sulphate
(Copperas)
(ii) Ferric Chloride FeCl3 162.2
(iii) Ferric Sulphate Fe2SO4(3) 400.0
3 Chlorinated Copperas Fe2SO4(3).FeCl3 562.08
4. Sodium Aluminate Na2Al2O4 164.0
 Alum
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O +3Ca(HCO3)2 → 3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3↓ + 6CO2↑
Imparts Causes
Bicarbonate corrosiveness
alkalinity permanent
(pH 4.5 – 8.3) hardness

(i) Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 → 3CaSO4 + Al(OH)3↓ +18H2O

(ii) Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Na2CO3 → 3Na2SO4 + 2Al(OH)3↓ +3CO2 ↑+15H2O

 Ferrous Sulphate (Copperas)
When lime is added to water in conjunction with Copperas

(i) Copperas
FeSO4.7H2O + Ca(OH) 2 → CaSO4 + Fe(OH)
Hydrated Ferrous 2 + 7H2O
Lime Hydroxide

When Copperas is added earlier to lime

(ii)FeSO4.7H2O +3Ca(HCO
Alkali present )in → Fe(HCO ) + CaCO + 7H O
3 2 3 2 4 2
raw water

Hydrated Ferrous
(iii) Fe(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)
Lime 2 → Fe(OH) 2 +
Hydroxide 2CaCO
c 3
+ 2H2O
Fl o

Ferric Hydroxide Precipitate

(iv) 4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe(OH)3↓
 Chlorinated Copperas
6(FeSO4.7H2O) + 3Cl2 → 2Fe2(SO4)3 +2FeCl3 + 42H2O
Ferric Sulphate Ferric Chloride

Fe2Sulphate
Ferric (SO4)3 +Hydrated
3Ca(OH) 2 →
Lime 3CaSO4 +Ferric
2Fe(OH)
Hydroxide
3
Precipitate

2FeCl
Ferric + 3Ca(OH)
Chloride
3 →
Hydrated Lime
2 3CaCl2 + 2Fe(OH)
Ferric Hydroxide
3
Precipitate
 Sodium Aluminate

Na2Al2O4 + Ca(HCO3)2 → Calcium

CaAl2O 4↓ + Na2CO3 +CO2↑ +H2O
Aluminate

Na2Al2O4 + CaCl2 → CaAl2O4 ↓ + 2NaCl

Na2Al2O4 + CaSO4 → CaAl2O4 ↓ + Na2SO4

Comparison of Iron and alum Salts
• Iron salts
– produce heavy floc – therefore can remove more
suspended matter than alum
– can remove H2S and its corresponding tastes and
odours from water
– used over a wider range of pH values
– cause staining and promote the growth of iron
bacteria in the distribution system
– impart more corrosiveness than alum
– Handling and storing of iron salts require more
skill and control (iron salts are more corrosive and
deliquescent than alum)
Clariflocculator (Coagulation-Flocculation-
Sedimentation Basin)
• Consists of four units
– Feeding Device
Depending upon the feeding of
• Dry Feeding Devices chemical coagulant either in powdered
• Wet Feeding Devices form or in a solution form

– Mixing Device or Mixing Basin

• Mixing Basins with Baffle Walls
• Mixing Basins equipped with mechanical devices
– Flocculation Tank
– Settling or Sedimentation Tank
Turbidities as low as 10 – 20mg/L and 70% B-Coli
index can be removed in Clariflocculator
Dry Feeders
Example 1:
Determine the quantity of alum required in order to treat 13 million
litres of water per day at a treatment plant, where 12 ppm of alum dose
is required. Also determine the amount of carbon dioxide gas which will
be released per liter of water treated.

Example 2:
8 mg/L of Copperas is consumed with lime at a coagulation basin.
Determine the quantity of copperas and the quick lime required to treat
10 million litres of water.
Example 3:
Raw water with suspended solids concentration of 37mg/L has to be
treated in a clariflocculator. The flow into water treatment plant is
0.5m3/s and alum dosing is found to be 23mg/L. The effluent suspended
solids concentration is measured as 12mg/L. The sludge content is 1%
and specific gravity of sludge solids is 3.01. What volume of sludge must
be disposed of each day?
Dewatering and Disposal of Sludge from
Water Treatment Plant
• By ponding in Artificial or Natural Lagoons –
provided sufficient open land is available in
the vicinity of the plant
• Sand Drying Beds
• Gravity Thickeners
• High Speed Centrifuges
• Pressure Filtration
• Vacuum Filtration
Dewatered sludge is finally disposed of either by
incineration or by burial in trenches
Filtration - process where water is filtered
through granular material eg. sand
• Polishing step to remove small flocs (or)
precipitant particles not removed in
settling basins
• Primary turbidity removal process (under
certain conditions)
• Removes Colour, turbidity, odour,
pathogenic organisms etc.
 Filters
Slow Sand Rapid Sand
Gravity Filters Pressure Filters
Gravity Filters

 Remove much larger

 Universally  Industrial Use
%age of impurities and adopted in
bacteria as compared to modern water  Swimming Pools
Rapid Sand Gravity Filters treatment plants
 Very slow rate of
Filtration
 require large areas and
are costly
 Obsolete in present day
Theory of Filtration
• Mechanical Straining – particles bigger than
voids are arrested in sand layers. Most
particles are removed in upper sand layers –
arrested particles along with flocs form mat
which further helps in straining
• Flocculation and Sedimentation – Assumed
that void spaces act like coagulation-
sedimentation tanks. Remove particles smaller
than size of voids. Colloidal particles act as a
gelatinous mass and therefore attract other
finer particles
• Biological Metabolism – Bacteria present in voids
convert organic impurities (eg. algae, plankton
etc.) to harmless compounds. There harmless
compounds form a layer on top called “Dirty
Skin” which further helps in straining out
impurities.
• Electrolytic Changes – by changing chemical
characteristics of water. Sand grains of filter
media and impurities in water carry electrical
charges of opposite nature. When these come in
contact with each other, they neutralize, thereby
changing the character of water
Filter Materials
• Sand (Coarse or Fine)
– Free from dirt and impurities
– Uniform in nature and size
– Hard and resistant
– Should not loose 5% weight when kept in HCl for
24hours
• Gravel
– May be used below sand
– Density 1600kg/m3
• Anthracite Coal
• Size of sand – expressed as effective size ie.,
D10 – size of sieve in mm through which 10% of
sample of sand by mass will pass.
• Uniformity in size or degree of variation in
sizes of particles is measured and expressed
by Uniformity Coefficient (D60/D10)
Slow Sand Filter - Components
• Exposure Tank – open water tight rectangular tank
made of masonry or concrete
• Depth 2.5 to 3.5m
• Area 100 – 2000sq.m or more
• Bed Slope 1 in 100 towards drain
Filter Media
• Sand layers placed over gravel support
• Depth 90 – 110cm
• D10 0.2 to 0.4mm
• Uniformity Coefficient 1.8 to 2.5
• Top 15cm – sand of finer quality
• Base material – gravel
• 30 – 75 cm thick of different sizes, placed in
layers
• 3 to 4 layers of 15 – 20 cm depth
• Coarsest Gravel – Bottommost layer
– Coarsest layer 40 to 65mm
– Intermediate layer 20 to 40mm
– top-most layer 3 – 6mm
• Under drainage system – Central drain and
lateral drains
• Inlet and Outlet Arrangements
 60 – 90 cm
Sand Bed

3 - 6 mm size
10 – 15 cm

60 – 90 cm
6 - 12 mm size 10 – 15 cm
Gravel Bed

10 – 15 cm
12 - 20 mm size

10 – 15 cm
20 - 40 mm size
Rapid Sand Gravity Filters
• These filters employ coarser sand, with
effective size as 0.5mm or so.
• Yield as high as 30 times the yield given by
slow sand filters.
 Components of Rapid Sand Gravity Filter
• Enclosure Tank – open water-tight rectangular
tank made of masonry or concrete.
– Depth 2.5 to 3.5m
– Area of filter 10 – 80 m2
– Number of Units at a filter plant (Morrell and
Wallace)
N = 1.22√Q where N = No. of Filter Units
Q = Plant capacity in
MLD
• Atleast 2 filter units in any plant. For a plant of
more than 9 MLD, no single unit should have a
th
Filter Media
• Sand Layers 60 – 90 cm depth and placed over
gravel support
• Effective size of sand (D10) 0.35 to 0.55mm
• Uniformity Coefficient (D60/D10) 1.3 to 1.7
– Sand must be laid in layers. Finer Quality on top
and coarser at the bottom
• Base Material – Gravel. It supports sand.
– 60 to 90 cm thick of different sizes, placed in
layers
Under-drainage System
• Purpose served
– Receive and collect filtered water
– Allow backwashing for cleaning filter
– Rate of back wash water 300 – 900 litres/min./m2 of
filter area depending on the design. Evenly and
uniformly applied over the under portion of the
gravel or sand bed.
• Various forms of Under-drainage systems
– (i) Manifold and lateral system
– (ii) Wheeler Bottom and
– (iii) Porous Plate Bottom
Section of the ‘manifold and lateral’ system, in
which laterals are provided with strainers
Cross-section of a lateral pipe drain
with perforations
Other Appurtenances
• Wash Water Troughs (or gutters)
– Square, V shaped or semi-circular
– Made of cast iron, concrete, steel or wrought iron
• Air Compressor for backwashing – compressed
air of 600 to 800 litres/min/sq.m for about 4
mins
• Rate Controller – fitted at outlet end of each
filter unit. Most common type is venturi-rate
controller
• Miscellaneous Accessories
Backwashing
• When sand becomes dirty (indicates excessive
loss of head) the filter must be cleaned and
washed.
• Entire backwashing of filters and re-
maintenance of filtered supplies takes about
15 mins
• Amount of water required for backwashing
vary from 2 – 5% of total amount of water
filtered. Frequently washed every 24 to 48 hrs.
Isometric View of a Rapid Gravity Filter
 Operational Troubles in Rapid Gravity Filters
• Formation of Mud Balls
• Cracking of Filters
Example:
Design the approximate dimensions of a set of
rapid gravity filters for treating water required
for a population of 50,000; the rate of supply
being 180 litres per day per person. The filters
are rated to work 5000litres per hour per
sq.m. Assume whatever data are necessary,
and not given.
Solution:
Assuming given rate of supply = average demand
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x Average Demand
= 1.8 x 180 L x 50,000
= 16.2 Million Litres

Water demand per hour (ignoring time lost in cleaning)

= (16.2 x 106)/24 = 675 x 103 L/hr.

Rate of Filtration = 5000 Litres/hr/sq.m

Area of Filter Beds Required = Water Demand/Rate of Filtration

= (675 x 103)/5000 = 135 sq.m

Since two units are required to be designed,

area of each unit = 135/2 = 67.5 sq.m

Assuming L = 1.5B, we have

1.5B2 = 67.5 Therefore B = 6.70m
Choose 6.75 m width and 10m length. Hence 2 units of size 10m x 6.75
m are required. One additional unit as stand-by may also be provided for
breakdowns, repairs or cleaning operations.
T2 Solution:
Assuming given rate of supply = average demand
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x Average Demand
= 1.8 x 200 L x 50,000
= 18.0 Million Litres

Rate of Filtration = 300 Litres/day/sq.m

Area of Filter Beds Required = Water Demand/Rate of Filtration

= (18x 106)/300 = 60000 sq.m

Since 5 units are required to be designed,

area of each unit = 60000/5 = 12000 sq.m

Assuming L = 1.5B, we have

1.5B2 = 12000 Therefore B = 89.44m
Choose 89.4 m width and 134.2 m length. Hence 5 units of size 134.2m
x 89.4 m are required. One additional unit as stand-by may also be
provided for breakdowns, repairs or cleaning operations.