Chapter 6

■ Requirements Modeling: Scenarios, Information,

and Analysis Classes
Slide Set to accompany
Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
by Roger S. Pressman

Slides copyright © 1996, 2001, 2005, 2009 by Roger S. Pressman

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May be reproduced ONLY for student use at the university level when used in conjunction
with Software Engineering: A Practitioner's Approach, 7/e. Any other reproduction or use is
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Requirements Analysis
■ Requirements analysis
■ specifies software’s operational characteristics
■ indicates software's interface with other system elements
■ establishes constraints that software must meet
■ Requirements analysis allows the software engineer (called an
analyst or modeler in this role) to:
■ elaborate on basic requirements established during earlier
requirement engineering tasks
■ build models that depict user scenarios, functional activities,
problem classes and their relationships, system and class
behavior, and the flow of data as it is transformed.

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A Bridge

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Rules of Thumb
■ The model should focus on requirements that are visible within the
problem or business domain. The level of abstraction should be
relatively high.
■ Each element of the analysis model should add to an overall
understanding of software requirements and provide insight into
the information domain, function and behavior of the system.
■ Delay consideration of infrastructure and other non-functional
models until design.
■ Minimize coupling throughout the system.
■ Be certain that the analysis model provides value to all
stakeholders.
■ Keep the model as simple as it can be.

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Domain Analysis
Software domain analysis is the identification, analysis,
and specification of common requirements from a
specific application domain, typically for reuse on
multiple projects within that application domain . . .
[Object-oriented domain analysis is] the identification,
analysis, and specification of common, reusable
capabilities within a specific application domain, in
terms of common objects, classes, subassemblies, and
frameworks . . .
Donald Firesmith

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Domain Analysis
■ Define the domain to be investigated.
■ Collect a representative sample of applications in
the domain.
■ Analyze each application in the sample.
■ Develop an analysis model for the objects.

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Elements of Requirements Analysis

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Scenario-Based Modeling
“[Use-cases] are simply an aid to defining what exists
outside the system (actors) and what should be
performed by the system (use-cases).” Ivar Jacobson
(1) What should we write about?
(2) How much should we write about it?
(3) How detailed should we make our description?
(4) How should we organize the description?

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What to Write About?
■ Inception and elicitation—provide you with the
information you’ll need to begin writing use cases.
■ Requirements gathering meetings, QFD, and other
requirements engineering mechanisms are used to
■ identify stakeholders
■ define the scope of the problem
■ specify overall operational goals
■ establish priorities
■ outline all known functional requirements, and
■ describe the things (objects) that will be manipulated by the
system.
■ To begin developing a set of use cases, list the functions
or activities performed by a specific actor.

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How Much to Write About?
■ As further conversations with the stakeholders
progress, the requirements gathering team
develops use cases for each of the functions
noted.
■ In general, use cases are written first in an
informal narrative fashion.
■ If more formality is required, the same use
case is rewritten using a structured format
similar to the one proposed.

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Use-Cases
■ a scenario that describes a “thread of usage” for a
system
■ actors represent roles people or devices play as the
system functions
■ users can play a number of different roles for a given
scenario

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Developing a Use-Case
■ What are the main tasks or functions that are performed by the
actor?
■ What system information will the the actor acquire, produce or
change?
■ Will the actor have to inform the system about changes in the
external environment?
■ What information does the actor desire from the system?
■ Does the actor wish to be informed about unexpected changes?

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Use-Case Diagram

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Activity
Diagram
Supplements the
use case by
providing a
graphical
representation of
the flow of
interaction within
a specific scenario

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 Swimlane
Diagrams
Allows the modeler to
represent the flow of
activities described by the
use-case and at the same
time indicate which actor
(if there are multiple actors
involved in a specific use-
case) or analysis class has
responsibility for the
action described by an
activity rectangle

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Data Modeling
■ examines data objects independently of
processing
■ focuses attention on the data domain
■ creates a model at the customer’s level of
abstraction
■ indicates how data objects relate to one
another

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What is a Data Object?
■ a representation of almost any composite information
that must be understood by software.
■ composite information—something that has a number of
different properties or attributes
■ can be an external entity (e.g., anything that produces or
consumes information), a thing (e.g., a report or a
display), an occurrence (e.g., a telephone call) or event
(e.g., an alarm), a role (e.g., salesperson), an
organizational unit (e.g., accounting department), a
place (e.g., a warehouse), or a structure (e.g., a file).
■ The description of the data object incorporates the data
object and all of its attributes.
■ A data object encapsulates data only—there is no
reference within a data object to operations that act on
the data.

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Data Objects and Attributes
A data object contains a set of attributes that
act as an aspect, quality, characteristic, or
descriptor of the object
object:
automobile
attributes:
make
model
body type
price
options code

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What is a Relationship?
■ Data objects are connected to one another in
different ways.
■ A connection is established between person and car
because the two objects are related.
• A person owns a car
• A person is insured to drive a car
■ The relationships owns and insured to drive
define the relevant connections between
person and car.
■ Several instances of a relationship can exist
■ Objects can be related in many different ways

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ERD Notation
One common
form:
(0, m)
objec 1
relationship objec 2
(1, 1)
t t
attribute
Another common
form:
objec 1 relationshi
p
objec 2
t (0, m) (1, 1) t

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Building an ERD
■ Level 1—model all data objects (entities) and
their “connections” to one another
■ Level 2—model all entities and relationships
■ Level 3—model all entities, relationships, and
the attributes that provide further depth

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The ERD: An Example
request
Customer place
for service
(1,1) s (1,m)
(1,1)
standard (1,n work
task table generate
s
) order
(1,1) (1,1) (1,1)
selecte work (1,w
d tasks ) consist
from (1,w s
) of
(1,i)
materials list
s

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Class-Based Modeling
■ Class-based modeling represents:
■ objects that the system will manipulate
■ operations (also called methods or services) that will
be applied to the objects to effect the manipulation
■ relationships (some hierarchical) between the objects
■ collaborations that occur between the classes that are
defined.
■ The elements of a class-based model include
classes and objects, attributes, operations, CRC
models, collaboration diagrams and packages.

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Identifying Analysis Classes
■ Examining the usage scenarios developed as
part of the requirements model and perform a
"grammatical parse" [Abb83]
■ Classes are determined by underlining each noun or
noun phrase and entering it into a simple table.
■ Synonyms should be noted.
■ If the class (noun) is required to implement a
solution, then it is part of the solution space;
otherwise, if a class is necessary only to describe a
solution, it is part of the problem space.
■ But what should we look for once all of the
nouns have been isolated?

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Manifestations of Analysis Classes
■ Analysis classes manifest themselves in one of the
following ways:
• External entities (e.g., other systems, devices, people) that
produce or consume information
• Things (e.g, reports, displays, letters, signals) that are part of
the information domain for the problem
• Occurrences or events (e.g., a property transfer or the
completion of a series of robot movements) that occur within
the context of system operation
• Roles (e.g., manager, engineer, salesperson) played by people
who interact with the system
• Organizational units (e.g., division, group, team) that are
relevant to an application
• Places (e.g., manufacturing floor or loading dock) that
establish the context of the problem and the overall function
• Structures (e.g., sensors, four-wheeled vehicles, or computers)
that define a class of objects or related classes of objects

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Defining Attributes
■ Attributes describe a class that has been selected
for inclusion in the analysis model.
■ build two different classes for professional baseball
players
• For Playing Statistics software: name, position, batting
average, fielding percentage, years played, and games
played might be relevant
• For Pension Fund software: average salary, credit
toward full vesting, pension plan options chosen,
mailing address, and the like.

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Defining Operations
■ Do a grammatical parse of a processing
narrative and look at the verbs
■ Operations can be divided into four broad
categories:
■ (1) operations that manipulate data in some way
(e.g., adding, deleting, reformatting, selecting)
■ (2) operations that perform a computation
■ (3) operations that inquire about the state of an
object, and
■ (4) operations that monitor an object for the
occurrence of a controlling event.

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CRC Models
■ Class-responsibility-collaborator (CRC) modeling
[Wir90] provides a simple means for
identifying and organizing the classes that are
relevant to system or product requirements.
Ambler [Amb95] describes CRC modeling in
the following way:
■ A CRC model is really a collection of standard index
cards that represent classes. The cards are divided
into three sections. Along the top of the card you
write the name of the class. In the body of the card
you list the class responsibilities on the left and the
collaborators on the right.

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CRC Modeling

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Class Types
■ Entity classes, also called model or business classes, are extracted
directly from the statement of the problem (e.g., FloorPlan and Sensor).
■ Boundary classes are used to create the interface (e.g., interactive
screen or printed reports) that the user sees and interacts with as the
software is used.
■ Controller classes manage a “unit of work” [UML03] from start to
finish. That is, controller classes can be designed to manage
■ the creation or update of entity objects;
■ the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from entity
objects;
■ complex communication between sets of objects;
■ validation of data communicated between objects or between the user and
the application.

T 31
Responsibilities
■ System intelligence should be distributed across classes to
best address the needs of the problem
■ Each responsibility should be stated as generally as possible
■ Information and the behavior related to it should reside within
the same class
■ Information about one thing should be localized with a single
class, not distributed across multiple classes.
■ Responsibilities should be shared among related classes, when
appropriate.

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Collaborations
■ Classes fulfill their responsibilities in one of two ways:
■ A class can use its own operations to manipulate its own attributes,
thereby fulfilling a particular responsibility, or
■ a class can collaborate with other classes.
■ Collaborations identify relationships between classes
■ Collaborations are identified by determining whether a class can
fulfill each responsibility itself
■ three different generic relationships between classes [WIR90]:
■ the is-part-of relationship
■ the has-knowledge-of relationship
■ the depends-upon relationship

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Composite Aggregate Class

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Associations and Dependencies
■ Two analysis classes are often related to one another
in some fashion
■ In UML these relationships are called associations
■ Associations can be refined by indicating multiplicity (the
term cardinality is used in data modeling
■ In many instances, a client-server relationship exists
between two analysis classes.
■ In such cases, a client-class depends on the server-class in
some way and a dependency relationship is established

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Multiplicity

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Dependencies

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Analysis Packages
■ Various elements of the analysis model (e.g., use-cases,
analysis classes) are categorized in a manner that packages
them as a grouping
■ The plus sign preceding the analysis class name in each
package indicates that the classes have public visibility and
are therefore accessible from other packages.
■ Other symbols can precede an element within a package. A
minus sign indicates that an element is hidden from all other
packages and a # symbol indicates that an element is
accessible only to packages contained within a given package.

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Analysis Packages

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Reviewing the CRC Model
■ All participants in the review (of the CRC model) are given a subset of the CRC model
index cards.
■ Cards that collaborate should be separated (i.e., no reviewer should have two cards
that collaborate).
■ All use-case scenarios (and corresponding use-case diagrams) should be organized into
categories.
■ The review leader reads the use-case deliberately.
■ As the review leader comes to a named object, she passes a token to the person
holding the corresponding class index card.
■ When the token is passed, the holder of the class card is asked to describe the
responsibilities noted on the card.
■ The group determines whether one (or more) of the responsibilities satisfies the
use-case requirement.
■ If the responsibilities and collaborations noted on the index cards cannot accommodate
the use-case, modifications are made to the cards.
■ This may include the definition of new classes (and corresponding CRC index
cards) or the specification of new or revised responsibilities or collaborations on
existing cards.

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