MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT – I
 Unit - I
INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Mobile Computing – Applications of Mobile

Computing- Generations of Mobile Communication
Technologies- Multiplexing – Spread spectrum -MAC
Protocols – SDMA- TDMA- FDMA- CDMA

2
 Basic Concepts
 Mobile Handsets, Wireless Communications, and server
applications
 Cell Phone System
 Types of Telecommunication Networks
 Computer Networks
 Controller Area Networks (CANs)
 Network is used to connect the different components of an embedded controller. Eg,
Automobiles industry
 LANs - private owned, building or campus operate at 1 Gbps
 Internetworks – several LANs connected
 LAN Architecture – topologies (ring, mesh..)

3
 Basic Concepts
 Components of a wireless communication system
 Transmitter, receiver, filter, antenna, amplifier, mixers
 Wireless Networking Standards (Table1.1)
 ITU, IEEE and ISO
 IEEE 802.11 standards (a,bc,d,e,f…u)
 WLAN Architecture
 Components ( Access point, bridge, and LAN card)
 Applications
 Campus WLANs
 Streamlining inventory management
 Providing LAN
 WLAN connectivity to geographically dispersed computers
 Advantages of wireless LAN over wired LAN
 Mobility
 Simplicity and speedy deployment

4
Wireless Networking Standards

5
 What Is Mobile Computing?
• What is computing?
Operation of computers (oxfords advance learner’s dictionary)
• What is the mobile?
That someone /something can move or be moved easily and quickly from
place
to place
• What is mobile computing?
Users with portable computers still have network connections while they move
• A simple definition could be:
Mobile Computing is using a computer (of one kind or another) while on
the move
• Another definition could be:
Mobile Computing is when a (work) process is moved from a normal fixed
position to a more dynamic position.
• A third definition could be:
Mobile Computing is when a work process is carried out somewhere where
it was not previously possible. 6
 Comparison to Wired Net.

• Wired Networks • Mobile Networks

- high bandwidth - low bandwidth
- low bandwidth variability - high bandwidth variability
- can listen on wire - hidden terminal problem
- high power machines - low power machines
- high resource machines - low resource machines
- need physical - need proximity
access(security) - higher delay
- low delay - disconnected operation
- connected
operation

7
 Why Go Mobile?

• Enable anywhere/anytime connectivity

• Bring computer communications to areas
without pre-existing infrastructure
• Enable mobility
• Enable new applications
• An exciting new research area

8
Mobile Computing
Vs
Wireless
Networking

9
 Evolution of Wireless LAN
• In late 1980s, vendors started offering wireless
products, which were to substitute the
traditional wired LAN (Local Area Network)
products.
• The idea was to use a wireless local area
network to avoid the cost of installing LAN
cabling and ease the task of relocation or
otherwise modifying the network's structure.

10
 Evolution of Wireless LAN
• The question of interoperability between
different wireless LAN
critical. products became
• IEEE standard committee took the
responsibility to form standard
WLAN. the for
• As a result IEEE 802.11 series of standards
emerged.

11
 Evolution of Wireless LAN
• WLAN uses the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific,
and Medical (ISM) band that different products
can use as long as they comply with certain
regulatory rules
• WLAN is also known as Wireless Fidelity or
WiFi in short
• There are many products which use these
unlicensed bands along with WLAN.

12
 Evolution of Wireless LAN
• Examples could be cordless telephone, microwave
oven etc.
• There are 3 bands within the ISM bands.
– These are 900-MHz ISM band, which ranges from
902 to 928 MHz;
– 2.4-GHz ISM band, which ranges from 2.4 to
2.4853 GHz; and
– the 5.4 GHz band, which range from 5.275 to
5.85 GHz.
• WLAN uses 2.4 GHz and 5.4 GHz bands.
• WLAN works both in infrastructure mode and ad
hoc mode
13
 Evolution of Wireless PAN
• Techniques for WPANs are infrared and
radio waves.
• Most of Laptop computers support
the
communication infrared, for
standards through formulated which
by
have
(Infrared been IrDA
Data Association-www.irda.org).
• Through WPAN, a PC can communicate with
another IrDA device like another PC or a
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a Cellular
phone.
14
 Evolution of Wireless PAN Cont.
• The other best known PAN
technology standard is Bluetooth.
• Bluetooth uses radio instead of infrared.
• It offers a peak over the air speed of about 1
Mbps over a short range of about 10 meters.
• The advantage of radio wave is that
unlike infrared it does not need a line of
sight.
• WPAN works in ad hoc mode only
15
 New Forms of Computing

Wireless Computing
Nomadic Computing
Mobile Computing
Computing Ubiquitous Computing
Pervasive Computing
Invisible Computing

16
 MOBILE COMPUTING
• Mobile computing can be defined as a
computing environment over physical
mobility.
• The user of a mobile computing
environment will be able to access data,
information or other logical objects from
any device in any network while on the
move.
17
 MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

• Mobile computing system allows a

user to perform a task from
anywhere using a computing device
in the public (the Web), corporate
(business information) and personal
information spaces (medical record,
address book).
18
 MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
• Mobile computing is used in different contexts
with different names. The most common
names are:
– Mobile Computing:
• The computing environment is mobile and moves along
with the user.
• This is similar to the telephone number of a GSM
(Global System for Mobile communication) phone,
which moves with the phone.
• The offline (local) and real-time (remote) computing
environment will move with the user.
• In real-time mode user will be able to use all his remote
data and services online.
19
 MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
– Anywhere, Anytime Information: This is the
generic definition of ubiquity, the
where
information is available anywhere, all the time.
– Virtual Home Environment: (VHE) is defined as an
environment in a foreign network such that the
mobile users can experience the same computing
experience as they have in their home or corporate
computing environment.
• For example, one would like to put ones room heater on
when one is about 15 minutes away from home.

20
 MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
– Nomadic Computing: The computing
environment is nomadic and moves along with the
mobile user.
• This is true for both local and remote services.
– Pervasive Computing: A computing environment,
which is pervasive in nature and can be made
available in any environment.
– Ubiquitous Computing: A disappearing (nobody
will notice its presence) everyplace computing
environment. User will be able to use both local
and remote services.

21
MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
– Global Service Portability: Making a
service portable and available in every
environment. Any service of any
environment will be available globally.
– Wearable Computers:
Wearable computers computers
are thosethat
may be adorned by humans like a hat,
shoe or clothes (these are wearable
accessories).
22
 Mobile Computing Functions
• We can define a computing environment as mobile if
it supports one or more of the following
characteristics:
• User Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one physical
location to another location and use the same service.
– The service could be in the home network or a remote
network.
– Example could be a user moves from London to New
York and uses Internet to access the corporate
application the same way the user uses in the home
office.
23
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Network Mobility:

– User should be able to move from one network to

another network and use the same service.
– Example could be a user moves from Hong Kong
to New Delhi and uses the same GSM phone to
access the corporate application through WAP
(Wireless Application Protocol). In home network
he uses this service over GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service) whereas in Delhi he accesses it
over the GSM network.

24
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

• Bearer Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one bearer to
another and use the same service.
– Example could be a user was using a service
through WAP bearer in his home network in
Bangalore. He moves to Coimbatore, where WAP
is not supported, he switch over to voice or
SMS(Short Message Service) bearer to access the
same application.

25
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

• Device Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one
device to another and use the same service.
– Example could be sales representatives
using their desktop computer in home
office. During the day while they are on the
street they would like to use their Palmtop
to access the application.

26
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Session Mobility:
– A user session should be able to move
from one user-agent environment to another.
– Example could be a user was using his
through a CDMA (Code Division Multiple
service
Access) IX network. The user into the
entered
basement to park the car and got disconnected
from his CDMA network. User goes to home
office and starts using the desktop. The unfinished
session in the CDMA device moves from the
mobile device to the desktop computer. 27
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Service Mobility:
– User should be able to move from one service to
another.
– Example could be a user is writing a mail. To
complete the mail user needs to refer to some
other information. In a desktop PC, user simply
opens another service (browser) and moves
between them using the task bar. User should be
able to switch amongst services in small footprint
wireless devices like in the desktop.

28
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

• Host Mobility:
– The user device can be either a client
or server.
– When it is a server or host, some of
the complexities change.
– In case of host mobility the mobility
of IP
needs to be taken care of.

29
 Types of Wireless Devices

• Laptops
• Palmtops
• PDAs
• Cell phones
• Pagers
• Sensors
30
Apple’s Newton

1987

31
The Palm

1990

32
 Motorola Marco
• Newton OS 1.3
• 4MB ROM
• 687KB Flash RAM
• 1995
• 320x240 Monochrome LCD resistive
touchscreen
• RS422 serial port
• Localtalk support
• 1 PCMCIA Slot (5V or 12V)
• 1 Sharp ASK infrared port
• 4 AA batteries, rechargeable NiCd
batteries may be used
• First released January 1995
• It weighs 1.8 pounds and is 7.5 inches
high, 5.8 inches wide and 1.4 inches deep
1995 • Street price: USD 900-1400

33
Motorola Envoy

1996

34
The Pocket PC

1998

35
The Nokia 9000
Communicator

1996

36
The Hand-Held Computer:Sharp Zaurus

1998

37
The Vadem Clio: Hand-Held?, Tablet?
Other?

1999

38
The Tablet PC
Fujitsu Stylistic 2300/3400

2002

39
Laptops, Notebook, Sub
Notebooks &
Netbooks
Laptops: 1991
Notebooks: 1996
Netbooks: 2006

40
The First Wrist PC: Ruputer, 2000

41
Japan’s PHS Phone, Year 2001

42
Ear Phone, 2000

43
Wearable Computers, 2000

44
More Wearable -- Via PC

Http://ww.via-pc.c
om 2007

45
Wireless Helmet?

46
The Power Ring

47
NTT Key Fingers

48
The Projection Keyboard

http://www.canesta.com

49
 Toda
y
Andriod
The iphone
MyVu

The iPad

Plastic Logic QUE 22Moo Portable projectors

50
Smart Phones

51
Smart Phones

2009

52
 Re-Inventing the Tablet:
The New War of the PADs

2010-2011
2010

Microsoft: Soon

53
 Applications for mobile
•computing
There are several applications for mobile computing
including wireless remote access by travelers and
commuters, point of sale, stock trading, medical
emergency care, law enforcement, package delivery,
education, insurance industry, disaster recovery and
management, trucking industry, intelligence and
military.
• Most of these applications can be classified into:
– wireless and mobile access to the Internet
– wireless and mobile access to private Intranets
– wireless and adhocly mobile access between mobile
computers.

54
Mobile Computing - Characteristics
– Mobile devices
• Laptops
• Palmtops
• Smart cell phones
– Requirements
• Data access:
– Anywhere
– Anytime
• Nomadic users
– Constraints
• Limited ressources
• Variable connectivty:
– Performance
– Reliability

55
 Application Structure
Ethernet Ethernet

Distributed DB
Database

E-Fax-Order Branch office

Firm
xDSL

Application GSM Ethernet

Cache
Management
Resource DB-Access

Mobile Station
Distributed
Database
Communication path Client X 56
 Traffic Telematics Systems
Content Provider

Main Office
Content Provider
ATM

Internet

Beam Radio, ISDN GSM

Radio/Infrared
DAB: Digital Audio Broadcast
RDS/TMC: Radio Data System/ Traffic
Infrastructure Message Channel
57
Mobile Communication Networks:
Examples
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): worldwide standard for
digital, cellular Mobile Radio Networks
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System): European Standard
for future digital Mobile Radio Networks
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System): analog Mobile Radio Networks in
USA
DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications): European standard
for cordless phones
TETRA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio): European standard for circuit switched
radio networks
ERMES (European Radio Message System): European standard for radio
paging systems (Pager)
802.11: International standard for Wireless Local Networks
Bluetooth: wireless networking in close/local area
Inmarsat: geostationary satellite systems
Teledesic: planned satellite system on a non-geostationary orbit 58
Mobile Communication:
Development
Mobile Phone Networks
C D (GSM900) E (GSM1800)

HSCSD EDGE
GPRS

Cordless Telephony CT2 DECT

IMT2000/
UMTS
Packet Networks Modacom

Mobitex
Circuit Switched Networks Tetr
a

Satellite Networks Iridium/

Inmarsat Globalstar

Radio-LAN
Local Networks IEEE 802.11/ MBS
Hiperlan
IR-LAN

1990 1995 2000 2005

59
 Used
Acronyms
CT2: Cordless Telephone 2. Generation
HSCSD: High Speed Circuit Switched Data
GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
EDGE: Enhanced Data Rates for GSM
Evolution
IMT2000: International Mobile Telecommunications by
the year 2000
MBS: Mobile Broadband System

60
Wireless MAC Protocols - Issues

61
 Hidden Terminal Problem
• A sends to B, C cannot receive A
• C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS
fails)
• collision at B, A cannot receive the collision
(CD fails)
• A is “hidden” for C

A B C

62
 Exposed Terminal Problem
• B sends to A, C wants to send to D
• C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
• since A is outside the radio range of C waiting is not
necessary
• C is “exposed” to B

A B C D

63
 Near and Far Terminals
• Terminals A and B send, C receives
– the signal of terminal B hides A’s signal
– C cannot receive A

A B C

• This is also a severe problem for CDMA

networks
• precise power control required
64
 Classification of
wireless MAC protocols

Wireless MAC protocols

Fixed-assignment Random-access Reservation based

schemes schemes schemes
Eg. FDMA, TDMA Eg. Aloha & CSMA Eg. MACA
& CDMA
Connectionless CO packet-switched
Circuit-switched packet-switched

65
 International Cocktail Party
• FDMA – Large room divided up into small
rooms. Each pair of people takes turns
speaking.
• TDMA – Large room divided up into small
rooms. Three pairs of people per room,
however, each pair gets 20 seconds to speak.
• CDMA – No small rooms. Everyone is
speaking in different languages. If voice
volume is minimized, the number of people is
maximized.
66
 Fixed-assignment schemes
• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access

• FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access

• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access

67
 TDMA
• Each user transmits data on a time slot on
multiple frequencies
• A time slot is a channel
• A user sends data at an accelerated rate
(by using many frequencies) when its
time slot begins
• Data is stored at receiver and played back
at original slow rate

68
 General Specification of
•TDMA
Rx: 869-894MHz Tx: 824-849MHz
• 832 Channels spaced 30kHz apart
(3 users/channel)
• DQPSK modulation scheme
• 48.6kbps bit rate
• Interim Standard (IS) – 54
• Digital AMPS (Advanced Mobile
Phone System)
• Uses Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
usually 69
 TDMA
• Efficiency of TDMA
Operation
- overhead bits per frame
frame:
b OH
N - number of reference bursts per frame
r

Nt - number of traffic bursts per frame

br - number of overhead bits per reference burst
bp - number of overhead bits per preamble per slot
bg - number of equivalent bits in each guard time interval
Tf - frame duration
Rrf - bit rate of the radio-frequency channel
bOH  N r br  N t bp   N t  N r bg

btotal  T f  Rrf
 bOH
 f  1 b  100%
 total 
 
70
 Advantages of
• Flexible TDMA
bit rate
• No frequency guard band required
• No need for precise narrowband filters
• Easy for mobile or base stations to initiate
and execute hands off
• Extended battery life
• TDMA installations offer savings in base
station equipment, space and maintenance
• The most cost-effective technology for
upgrading a current analog system to digital

71
 Disadvantages to using
TDMA
• Requires network-wide
timing synchronization
• Requires signal processing fro
matched filtering and correlation
detection
• Demands high peak power on uplink
in transient mode
• Multipath distortion
72
 FDMA
• Similar to broadcast radio and TV, assign a
different carrier frequency per call
• Modulation technique determines the
required carrier spacing
• Each communicating wireless user gets his/her
own carrier frequency on which to send data
• Need to set aside some frequencies that are
operated in random-access mode to enable a
wireless user to request and receive a carrier
for data transmission
73
 General Specification of FDMA
• Rx: 869-894MHz Tx: 824-849MHz
• 832 Channels spaced 30kHz
apart (3 users/channel)
• DQPSK modulation scheme
• 48.6kbps bit rate
• Used in analog cellular phone
systems (AMPS)
• Uses Frequency Division
Duplexing (FDD)
• ISI (Intersymbol Interference) is 74
 FDMA
Operation 2  
• Number of FDMA N
f
c
guard

Channels  f - total
spectrum
- guard band
guard
c - channel bandwidth

• In the U.S. each cellular carrier is allocated

416 channels where:   f
12.5MHz

guard
10kHz
  30kHz
c

12.5MHz  2 10kHz
N  416
30kHz
75
 Advantages of FDMA
• If channel is not in use, it sits idle
• Channel bandwidth is relatively narrow (30kHz)
• Simple algorithmically, and from a
hardware standpoint
• Fairly efficient when the number of stations is small
and the traffic is uniformly constant
• Capacity increase can be obtained by reducing
the information bit rate and using efficient digital
code
• No need for network timing
• of
Nomodulation
restriction regarding the type of baseband or type76
 Disadvantages to using FDMA
• The presence of guard bands
• Requires right RF filtering to
minimize adjacent channel interference
• Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed
• Small inhibiting flexibility in bit
rate capability
• Does not differ significantly from analog
system
77
 Frequency vs Time

FDMA Carrier TDMA Hybrid FDMA/TDMA

Frequency

Frequency
Frequency

Time Time Time

Basic principle of communication: Two regions in the time-

frequency plane with equal areas can carry the same amount of
information

78
 General Specification of
•CDMA
Rx: 869-894MHz Tx: 824-849MHz
• 20 Channels spaced 1250kHz apart
(798 users/channel)
• QPSK/(Offset) OQPSK
modulation scheme
• 1.2288Mbps bit rate
• IS-95 standard
• Operates at both 800 and 1900 MHz
frequency bands
79
 CDMA
• Operation
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Technologies

80
 Advantages of CDMA
• Many users of CDMA use the same
frequency, TDD or FDD may be used
• Multipath fading may be substantially
reduced because of large signal bandwidth
• No absolute limit on the number of users
• Easy addition of more users
• Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
• Better signal quality
• No sense of handoff when changing cells
81
 Disadvantages to using CDMA

• As the number of users increases, the

overall quality of service decreases
• Self-jamming
• Near- Far- problem arises

82
Random Access Scheme

• ALOHA
• CSMA

83
 The ALOHA
Protocols
• Developed @ U of Hawaii in early 70’s.
• Packet radio networks.
• “Free for all”: whenever station has a frame
to send, it does so.
– Station listens for maximum RTT for an ACK.
– If no ACK, re-sends frame for a number of times and
then gives up.
– Receivers check FCS and destination address to
ACK.
84
 Pure
• Inpure ALOHA
ALOHA, frames are transmitted
at completely arbitrary times.

85
 Collisions

• Invalid frames may be caused by

channel noise or
• Because other station(s) transmitted at
the same time: collision.
• Collision happens even when the last
bit of a frame overlaps with the first bit
of the next frame.

86
 Pure ALOHA: Performance
• Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.

87
 ALOHA’s Performance (Cont’d)

• S= G -2G where S is the

e ,
throughput (rate of
successful
transmissions) and G is the
offered load.
• S = Smax = 1/2e = 0.184 for G=0.5.

88
 Slotted
Aloha
• Doubles performance of ALOHA.
• Frames can only be transmitted at
beginning of slot: “discrete” ALOHA.
• Vulnerable period is halved.
• S = G e-G.
• S = Smax = 1/e = 0.368 for G = 1.

89
 ALOHA Protocols: Performance
• Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA
systems.

90
 ALOHA Protocols: Summary

• Simple.
• But, poor utilization…
– When?

91
 Carrier Sense Multiple
Access
• The capacity of ALOHA or slotted ALOHA is
limited by the large vulnerability period of a
packet.
• By listening before transmitting, stations try to
reduce the vulnerability period to one
propagation delay.
• This is the basis of CSMA (Kleinrock and
Tobagi, UCLA, 1975).

92
 CSMA

• Station that wants to transmit first listens

to check if another transmission is in
progress (carrier sense).
• If medium is in use, station waits; else, it
transmits.
• Collisions can still occur.
• Transmitter waits for ACK; if no ACKs,
retransmits.
93
 CSMA
Protocol
Packet
ready

Channel
Busy?
yes
no
transmit

delay packet
wait for a
round-trip time transmission
k times

positive compute random

yes ack? no backoff integer
k

94
 CSMA
(cont’d)
• Collisions can occur only when 2 or
more stations begin transmitting
within short time.
• If station transmits and no collisions
during the time leading edge of
frame propagates to farthest station,
then NO collisions.
95
 CSMA
• After Flavors
detecting carrier, a
station can persist trying
to transmit after the channel is idle again.
• 1-persistent CSMA (IEEE 802.3)
– If medium idle, transmit; if medium busy, wait until idle; then
transmit with p=1.
– If collision, waits random period and starts again.
• Non-persistent CSMA: if medium idle, transmit;
otherwise wait a random time before re-trying.
– Thus, station does not continuously sense channel when it is in
use.
• P-persistent: when channel idle detected, transmits packet in
the first slot with p.
– Slotted channel, i.e., with probability q = p-1, defers to next
slot. 96
 CSMA vs
Aloha

• Comparison of the channel utilization versus load

for various random access protocols.
97
 CSMA/CD
• CSMA with collision detection.
• Problem: when frames collide, medium
is unusable for duration of both
(damaged) frames.
• For long frames (when compared to
propagation time), considerable waste.
• What if station listens while
transmitting?
98
 CSMA/CD Protocol
1. If medium idle, transmit; otherwise 2.
2.If medium busy, wait until idle, then
transmit with p=1.
3.If collision detected, transmit brief
jamming signal and abort transmission.
4.After aborting, wait random time, try
again.
99
 CSMA/CD Performance

• Wasted capacity restricted to time to

detect collision.
• Time to detect collision < 2*maximum
propagation delay.
• Rule in CSMA/CD protocols: frames
long enough to allow collision detection
prior to end of transmission.

100
CSMA with Collision Detection

• CSMA/CD can be in one of three

states: contention, transmission, or idle.
101
 Ethernet
• IEEE 802. family.
• Standards for LANs and MANs.
• Ethernet defined in the IEEE 802.3
standard.
• PHY, MAC, and LLC.

102
 MACA : Multiple Access
with Collision
Avoidance
•Exchange of two short messages – Request to Send (RTS), and
Clear to Send (CTS).
•They are fixed size – when A wishes to transmit to B, it sends an
RTS message.
• RTS message contains duration of proposed transmission
•If B knows that the channel is free, it responds with a CTS
message. (CTS also contains duration of proposed communication)
• How does this help ? RTS
A B
CTS D
C

103
 MACA
RTS
A B
CTS D
C
•Any station that hears the RTS message, defers all communication
for some time until the associated CTS message has been finished.
• A CTS message defers communication for the duration of the
time
indicated in the CTS message.
•When A is transmitting data, C can go ahead and access the
channel.
• What all could go wrong here ?
104
 Some effects in MACA
• Node B’s CTS message may not be heard by A.
• B found that the channel was already busy.
• RTS packet might collide.
•If A does not receive a CTS, it times-out and schedules the packet for
retransmission.
•MACA uses the binary exponential back-off algorithm to select the
retransmission time.
• B’s CTS message collides at C.
• This would cause C to be unaware of the pending communication
between nodes A and B.
• NOTE: MACA is used (with Modifications) in the WaveLAN cards.

105
 Exponential Back-Off
•RTS and CTS slot times (defined to be 30 bytes) form the
basic slot size.
•If CTS is not heard, a station chooses a time that is
uniformly distributed between 1 and BO (for Back-Off).
What is BO ?
• If a CTS message is received then BO is set to BOmin .
•If a CTS is missed, then, if the previous BO was BOold, the
new BO, BOnew is set to BOnew = Min ( 2 x BOold, BOmin).
•BOmin and BOmax represent the minimum and
maximum back-off intervals.
106
Questions ?