Fall, 2023

DISCRETE MATHEMATIC
LEC-04:
Fundamental Algebra
Groups, Rings, Fields
 Lecture 4

Sets, Operations

Functions

Groups, Rings and Fields

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 Sets

A collection of elements.
Examples:
A set with all elements
A set with description of property
The empty set, a set has no elements:
Set of integers:
Closed intervals:
Open intervals:

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 Subsets

A subset (A) of a set (B) if every

element of A is an element of B.
Examples:
Set of natural numbers
Set of integers

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 Set operations
Examples:
Union:

Intersection:

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 Set operations (cont’d)
Examples:
Complement:

Difference:

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 Set Operations (cont’d)
Laws that hold for sets:
Commutative:
Associative:

Distributive:

Idempotent:
Absorption:
Domination:
Identity:
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 Example 1
Let A be the set of students who live within one mile of school and let B be
the set of students who walk to classes. Describe the students in each of
these sets.
1) A ∩ B
the set of students who live within one mile of school and walk to class
(only students who do both of these things are in the intersection)
2) A ∪ B
the set of students who either live within one mile of school or walk to class
(or, it goes without saying, both)

3) A − B
the set of students who live within one mile of school but do not walk to class
4) B − A
the set of students who live more than a mile from school but nevertheless
walk to class 8
 Functions
Let E and F be sets. Each element , let there be
associated a unique element , then is called
a function from E into F.

: is called an image of .
Terms: mapping, operator, transformation are
synonyms for the term function.
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 Injection, Surjection, Bijection
Let , where are sets.

Injection: Function is called an injective mapping or injection or one-

to-one-maping, if it maps different elements of set to different
elements of the set .

Surjection: Function is called an surjective mapping or surjection or

an onto maping, if for every element there exits at least one
element of that is mapped to .

Bijection: A mapping is called bijective mapping or bijection or a one-

to-one correspondence if it is both surjective and injective.
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Injection, Surjection, Bijection

Injection Surjection
one-to-one-maping onto-maping

Bijection
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 Example 2

1) The expression 1/x is meaningless for x = 0, which is one of the elements

in the domain; thus the "rule” is no rule at all. In other words, f(0) is not
defined.

2) Things like are undefined (or, at best, are complex numbers).

3) The "rule" for f is ambiguous. We must have f(x) defined uniquely, but here
there are two values associated with every x, the positive square root and the
negative square root of x2 + 1.
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 Groups
Definition: Let (G, ) be a nonempty set with a operation
defined on it: . Let the following axioms are
satisfied:
 Closure: , the element is uniquely defined element of .
 Associative:
 Identity element: There exits an identity elements such that

 Inverse element: for each there exits an inverse element (denoted

by ), such that
We call a group. Commutative: Abelian group 13
 Groups (cont’d)
Definition: (Cyclic group) Let be a group, and let be any
element of . The set

is called the cyclic subgroup generated by . The group

is called a cyclic group if there exits an element such
that . The is called a generator of .
: Identity element
: Inverse element
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 Groups - Example
An example of group, G = ( S, O, I ) where S is set of
integers O is the operation of addition, the inverse operation
is subtraction I is the identity element zero (0).
Another example group, G = ( S, O, I ) where S is set of real
numbers excluding zero O is the operation of multiplication,
the inverse operation is division I is the identity element one
(1).
The operation does not have to be addition or multiplication.
The set does not have to be numeric 15
 Rings
Definition: (Ring) Let be a set, with two operations: addition
and multiplication are defined where . If the
following holds, is called a ring

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 Rings - Example
A example ring, R = ( S, O1, O2, I )
• S is set of real numbers.
• O1 is the operation of addition, the inverse operation is subtraction.

• O2 is the operation of multiplication.

• I is the identity element zero (0).

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 Fields
Definition: A ring R is called a field, if the multiplication is invertible for
all . In other word, , such that .
Any fileld is ring.

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 Fields - Example
An example of field, F = ( S, O1, O2, I1, I2 )
• S is set of real number.
• O1 is the operation of addition, the inverse operation is subtraction.

• O2 is the operation of multiplication.

• I1 is the identity element zero (0).

• I2 is the identity element one (1).

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 More Examples
1. Does the following set A3x4 (set of all 3x4 matrices) and the
operation • (matrix multiplication) form a group?
2. Prove that the set A3x3 (set of all 3x3 matrices) and the operation •
(matrix addition) form a commutative (or Abelian) group.

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 Finite/Galois Fields
An example of field, F = ( S, O1, O2, I1, I2 )
• S is set of real number.
• O1 is the operation of addition, the inverse operation is subtraction.

• O2 is the operation of multiplication.

• I1 is the identity element zero (0).

• I2 is the identity element one (1).

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REVIEW

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 Groups
• A set of elements with a binary operation denoted by  that
associates to each ordered pair (a,b) of elements in G an element
(a  b ) in G , such that the following axioms are obeyed:
• (A1) Closure:
• If a and b belong to G, then a  b is also in G

• (A2) Associative:
• a  (b  c) = (a  b)  c for all a, b, c in G

• (A3) Identity element:

• There is an element e in G such that a  e = e  a = a for all a in G

• (A4) Inverse element:

• For each a in G, there is an element a-1 in G such that aa-1 = a-1  a = e
Abelian
•(A5) Commutative:
• a  b = b  a for all a, b in G 23
 Cyclic Groups
•Exponentiation is defined within a group as a repeated application
of the group operator, so that a3 = aaa
•We define a0 = e as the identity element, and a-n = (a’)n ,
where a’ is the inverse element of a within the group
•A group G is cyclic if every element of G is a power ak (k is an
integer) of a fixed element a € G
•The element a is said to generate the group G or to be a generator
of G
•A cyclic group is always abelian and may be finite or infinite

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 Rings
• A ring R , sometimes denoted by {R , + , * }, is a set of elements with two binary
operations, called addition and multiplication, such that for all a , b , c in R the following
axioms are obeyed:
(A1–A5)

R is an abelian group with respect to addition; that is, R satisfies axioms A1 through A5. For the
case of an additive group, we denote the identity element as 0 and the inverse of a as –a
(M1) Closure under multiplication:
If a and b belong to R , then ab is also in R
(M2) Associativity of multiplication:
a (bc ) = (ab)c for all a , b , c in R
(M3) Distributive laws:
a (b + c ) = ab + ac for all a , b , c in R
(a + b )c = ac + bc for all a , b , c in R

• In essence, a ring is a set in which we can do addition, subtraction [a - b = a + (-b )], and

multiplication without leaving the set 25

 Rings contd.
• A ring is said to be commutative if it satisfies the following additional
condition:
(M4) Commutativity of multiplication:
ab = ba for all a, b in R
• An integral domain is a commutative ring that obeys the following
axioms.
(M5) Multiplicative identity:
There is an element 1 in R such that a1 = 1a =
a for all a in R
(M6) No zero divisors:
If a , b in R and ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b
= 0
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 Fields
•A field F , sometimes denoted by {F, +,* }, is a set of elements with two
binary operations, called addition and multiplication, such that for all a, b,
c in F the following axioms are obeyed:
(A1–M6)
F is an integral domain; that is, F satisfies axioms A1 through A5 and M1
through M6
(M7) Multiplicative inverse:
For each a in F, except 0, there is an element a-1 in F such that aa-1 = (a-1 )a = 1
•In essence, a field is a set in which we can do addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division without leaving the set. Division is defined with
the following
Familiarrule: a /b
examples = a (b
of fields
-1
) rational numbers, the real numbers, and the
are the
complex numbers. Note that the set of all integers is not a field, because not
every element of the set has a multiplicative inverse.
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Finite Fields of the Form GF(p)
•Finite fields play a crucial role in many cryptographic algorithms
•It can be shown that the order of a finite field must be a power of
a prime pn, where n is a positive integer
• The finite field of order pn is generally written GF(pn )
• GF stands for Galois field, in honor of the mathematician who first studied
finite fields

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Table 5.1(a)

(a) Addition modulo 8

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Table 5.1(b)

(b) Multiplication modulo 8

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Table 5.1(c)

(c) Additive and multiplicative

inverses modulo 8 33
Table 5.1(d)

(d) Addition modulo 7

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Table 5.1(e)

(e) Multiplication modulo 7

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Table 5.1(f)

(f) Additive and multiplicative

inverses modulo 7
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 •1. GF(p) consists of p
elements
•2. The binary operations +
and * are defined over the
set. The operations of
addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division
can be performed without
leaving the set. Each element
of the set other than 0 has a
multiplicative inverse
•We have shown that the
In this section, we have shown how elements of GF(p) are the
to construct a finite field of order p, integers {0, 1, . . . , p – 1} and
where p is prime.
that the arithmetic
GF(p) is defined with the following operations are addition and
properties: multiplication mod p
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