Measurements &

Instrumentation
Unit III

Electro dynamometer Wattmeter &

Power Measurements methods
Contents
• Electrodynamometer
Wattmeters
• Power measurements
DC circuits
AC circuits
Three-phase
systems
High-frequency
power
measurements
 Operating Principle
• Operating Principle

• It would have a torque in one direction during one half of the cycle and an equal effect in
the opposite direction during the other half of the cycle.

• If the frequency were very low, the pointer would swing back and forth around the zero
point.

• However, for an ordinary meter, the inertia is so great that on power frequencies the
pointer does not go very far in either direction but merely stays (vibrates slightly) around
zero.

• If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux each time the current through
the movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be produced for both positive and
negative halves of the cycle.

• In electrodynamometer instruments the field can be made to reverse simultaneously

with the current in the movable coil if the field (fixed) coil is connected in series with the
movable coil.
 Construction
• Construction

Fixed Coils

• The field is produced by a fixed coil.

• This coil is divided into two sections to give a more uniform field near the
centre and to allow passage of the instrument shaft.

Moving Coil

• A single element instrument has one moving coil.

• The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-
metallic former.
• A metallic former cannot be used as eddy current would be induced in it
by the alternating field.
• Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil.
• It should be noted that both fixed and moving coils are air cored.
 Construction
• Control System
• The controlling torque is provided by two control springs.
• These springs act as leads to the moving coil.

Moving System
• The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle.
• The moving system also carries the counter weights and truss type
pointer.
• Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high sensitivity is desired.

Damping System
• Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by
a pair of aluminum vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom.
• These vanes move in sector shaped chambers.
• Eddy current damping cannot be used in these instruments as the
operating field is very weak (on account of the fact that the coils are air
cored) and any introduction of a permanent magnet required for eddy
current damping would distort the operating magnetic field of the
 Torque Equation
Let,
i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils: A.
i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coil: A.
L1 = self-inductance of fixed coils: H.
L2 = self-inductance of moving coils H,
M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils:

Flux linkages of coil 1, ψ1 = L1 i1 + Mi2

Flux linkages f coil 2, ψ2 = L2 i2 + Mi1

Electrical input energy = e1i1dt+e2i2dt

Torque Equation
 Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments
• Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

i) Frequency error
ii) Eddy current error
iii) External magnetic field
iv) Temperature changes

• V) Error due to pressure coil Inductance

 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages
i) These instruments can be used on both a.c & d.c
ii) Accurate rms value
Disadvantages
(i) They have a low torque/weight ratio and hence have a low
sensitivity.
(ii) Low torque/weight ratio gives increased frictional losses.
(iii) They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the
moving iron type instruments.
(iv) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and
mechanical impacts. Therefore, they must be handled with great
care.
(v) The operating current of these instruments is large owing to
the fact that they have weak magnetic field. The flux density is
about 0.006 Wb/m as against 0.1 to 0.5 Wb/m in PMCC
instruments
 The total instantaneous power absorbed by the three loads Z1, Z2 and Z3,
are equal to the sum of the powers measured by the Two wattmeters, W1
and W2.

Fig: Two wattmeter method

Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter Method in
Star Connection

• Considering the above figure (A) in which Two Wattmeter W1

and W2 are connected, the instantaneous current through the
current coil of Wattmeter, W1 is given by the equation shown
below.
• Instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of
Wattmeter, W1 is given as
• Instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 is

• The instantaneous current through the current coil of

Wattmeter, W2 is given by the equation
• Instantaneous potential difference across the potential coil of
Wattmeter, W2 is given as
• Instantaneous power measured by the Wattmeter, W2 is

• Therefore, the Total Power Measured by the Two Wattmeters

W1 and W2 will be obtained by adding the equation (1) and
(2).

• Where P – the total power absorbed in the three loads at any

instant.
 Measurement of Power by Two Wattmeter Method in
Delta Connection
• Considering the delta connected circuit shown in the figure below.
• The instantaneous current through the coil of the Wattmeter,
W1 is given by the equation
• Voltage across Pressure coil of wattmeter, W1 will be
• Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by the
Wattmeter, W1 will be given as
• The instantaneous current through the current coil of
Wattmeter, W2 is given by the equation
• The instantaneous potential difference across the potential
coil of Wattmeter, W2 is
• Therefore, the instantaneous power measured by Wattmeter,
W2 will be
• Hence, to obtain the total power measured by the
Two Wattmeter the two equations, i.e. equation
(3) and (4) has to be added

• Where P is the total power absorbed in the three

loads at any instant.
• The power measured by the Two Wattmeter at
any instant is the instantaneous power absorbed
by the three loads connected in three phases.
Measurement of Three Phase Power: Three Wattmeter
Method
 Measurement of Three Phase Power: Three
Wattmeter Method (Contd.)
• Three Wattmeter method is employed to measure
power in a 3 phase, 4 wire system. However, this
method can also be employed in a 3 phase, 3 wire
delta connected load, where power consumed by
each load is required to be determined separately.
• The pressure coil of all the Three wattmeters namely
W1, W2 and W3 are connected to a common terminal
known as the neutral point. The product of the
phase current and line voltage represents as phase
power and is recorded by individual wattmeter.
 Measurement of Three Phase Power: Three
Wattmeter Method (Contd.)
• The total power in a Three wattmeter method of power
measurement is given by the algebraic sum of the readings of
Three wattmeters. i.e.
• Where,
W1 = V1I1
W2 = V2I2
W3 = V3I3
• Except for 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load, 3 phase power
can be measured by using only Two Wattmeter Method.
 Reactive Power Measurement
• The reactive power of the single phase circuit is measured by
the Varmeter (Volt ampere reactive meter). The varmeter is a
type of the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter in which the
pressure coil of the meter is made highly inductive. The terms
“highly inductive” means, the voltage of the pressure coils
lags at an angle of 90° with that of the current coil.
• The current which passes through the current coil is the load
current. The load current has a phase difference of 90°
concerning that of the supply voltage.
Single Phase Varrneter
Phasor Diagram
 Reactive Power Measurement
• The power which exists in the circuit when the voltage and
current are out of phase to each other, such type of power
is known as the reactive power. The formula measures the
reactive power in the circuit

• The Single Phase Varmeter gives the incorrect result

because of the presence of harmonics. If the varmeter
measures the reading at a different frequency from that
which we used during the calibration then also the
varmeter gives the inaccurate result.
 Reactive Power Measurement in Balanced
Three-Phase Circuit
• The single wattmeter method is used for measuring the
power of the balanced three-phase circuit. The current coil of
the Wattmeter is connected to one phase, and the pressure
coil is connected to the other phase of the line.
Phasor Diagram
• Let the current through the current coil – I2
• Voltage across the pressure coil – V13

• Total reactive volt amperes of the circuit

• The phase angle

 Polyphase Varmeter
• The reactive power exists in the circuit because
of the phase displacement between the voltage
and current. And this phase shifting is obtained
from the phase shifting transformer. The phase
shifting transformer consists two open circuit
transformer which is connected in open delta
configuration. The current coil is connected in
series with the line. The pressure coil is
connected to the common terminals of both the
auto-transformer.
Polyphase Varmeter
• The 57.7%, 100%, and 115.4% shows the tapping of
the auto-transformer. The auto-transformer shows the
maximum line voltage of 115.4%. The pressure coil of
one of the Wattmeter is connected to the 115.4%
tapping of auto-transformer, while the other is
connected to the 57.7%.
• The voltage produces the pressure coil of wattmeter
which is equal to the line voltage, but they have a
phase shift of an angle of 90º. Similarly, the pressure
coil of the Wattmeter 2 has the phase difference of
90º. The arithmetic readings of both the Wattmeters
gives the total reactive power of the circuit.
 Power in DC circuits
• Power
• Can be carried out using a voltmeter and an ammeter
(generally)
• Two measurement arrangements
• Wattmeters:

P  I LV L
– Dynamometer
– Digital wattmeter
– Thermal wattmeter
– Hall-power meter
DC circuits

a) Ammeter measures
current which flow
into the voltmeter
and load
b) Voltmeter measures
voltage drop across
the ammeter in
addition to that
dropping across the
load
Dynamometer

• Power (direct)
measurement device for
DC and AC systems
• Accuracy better than
0.25 %
• Two coils: static and
movable
• Torque is proportional
product of current in
current coil and current
in voltage coil
 Digital wattmeter (up to 100 kHz)

• Advantages:
– High-resolution
– Accuracy
• Several techniques
(multiplication of signals)
• Electronic multiplier is an
analog system which gives as
its output a voltage
proportional to the power
indication required  A/D
conversion
 Hall-power meter

• Coil generates magnetic

field which is
proportional to load
current
• The sensor excitation
current passes through
R1 and is proportional to
the load voltage
 Hall voltage is
proportional to load
power
• Problems: offset and
linearity
 Power in AC circuits

• Instantaneous power
(time dependence) p (t )  v(t )i (t )
• Mean power (usually the
T
most interesting) 1
• Real power (active work), P   p (t )dt
reactive power, apparent T 0
power
• Measures can be done
same way as DC circuit
(single-phase)
 AC circuits

P  VL I L cos  Q  VL I L sin 

S P Q
2 2
Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
 Low- and Medium-Frequency Power
Measurements

• Three-Voltmeter
Method
– Single-phase 2
VAC  VAB
2
 VBC
2

arrangements PL 
2R
– Power in load can be
measured using a
non-inductive resistor
and measuring the
three voltage
– Also in DC circuits
 Blondel’s Theorem

• Number of wattmeters
(voltage/current meter) is (n-1) where n
is number of conductors
• If n=3, only one wattmeter are needed
in case the 3-phase load is balanced.
 Line-Frequency Power Measurements
• Polyphase Power Measurements
– Three-phase systems are most commonly used in
industrial applications
– Energy and power generation and distribution
– “Real power for consumer”
– Reactive power also important (loading)
– Power can be measured several ways
– Power factor
 Line-Frequency Power Measurements (2)

• Four (main) different cases which affects to

the measurement arrangements:
1. Symmetrical load with neutral conductor
2. Symmetrical load without neutral conductor
3. Unsymmetrical load with neutral conductor
4. Unsymmetrical load without neutral conductor
 Line-Frequency Power Measurements (3)

• Measurements can be done several ways

(needed arrangements):
– One-wattmeter arrangements
– Two-wattmeter arrangements
– Three-wattmeter arrangements
Symmetrical and Balanced systems

The supply system is symmetrical and the

three-phase load is balanced when phase
currents and voltages are equal
“Normal situation”

V1  V2  V3

 I1  I 2  I 3
Symmetrical load with neutral conductor
• Power factor can be measured for
example with “power factor meter”
• Powers:

S  V1 I1  V2 I 2  V3 I 3

 P  S cos 
 Q  S sin 

Symmetrical load with neutral conductor

• One wattmeter
arrangements
for real and
reactive power P  3U T I T cos 
measurements
 Symmetrical load without neutral conductor

• Active and reactive IA

PAB
Phase A
power can be measured A W
with two power meter
VAB = VA - VB V
(in three-wire system),
case of symmetrical load Phase B

and without neutral

conductor (motors), VCB = VC - VB
V
Aron’s theorem Phase C
A W
• Possible to use also in IC PCB
case of unsymmetrical
load
P  PAB  PCD
• If power factor is <0,5
then three wattmeter
arrangement Q  3 * PAB  PCD 
 Symmetrical Power Systems Supplying
Unbalanced Loads
• Current amplitudes are different, and their
relative phase is not equal 120°
• Usually it is caused by some fault (short circuit)
• Three- or two wattmeter arrangements
(depends on neutral point)
 Symmetrical Power Systems Supplying
Unbalanced Loads
• Four possible arrangements:
– Three-wattmeter arrangement
– Two-wattmeter arrangement
– Barbagelata arrangement
– Righi arrangement
 Two-wattmeter arrangements

• Measurements
arrangements for
reactive power
measurements


Q  3  P1(30 )  P3(10 ) 
• where P1(30)  P10  P13
• Measurement
arrangements for
active and reactive
power measurements
• “Two-wattmeter
method”  P  P12  P32

Q  1 2P  P   P  P 
 3
13 31 32 12
• Measurement
arrangements for
reactive power
measurements

Q
1

P32  P12  2 P2 (31) 
3