Carbohydrates

By: Anam Tariq

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• Carbohydrates are also the most abundant
biological molecules
• Carbohydrates are one of the three major
classes of biological molecules.
• Carbohydrates derive their name from the
general formula Cn (H2O)

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• Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecule
on Earth. Living organisms use carbohydrates as
accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions and for
structural support inside cell walls.
• Cells attach carbohydrate molecules to proteins and
lipids, modifying structures to enhance functionality.
• For example, small carbohydrate molecules bonded to
lipids in cell membranes improve cell identification,
cell signaling, and complex immune system
responses.
• The carbohydrate monomers deoxyribose and ribose
are integral parts of DNA and RNA molecules.
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 Types of Carbohydrate
• Carbohydrates are of following types:
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides
• Derived carbohydrates

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• Monosaccharides (from Greek monos:
single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple
sugars,
• They are the most basic and fundamental units
of carbohydrates.
• They cannot be further hydrolyzed to simpler
compounds.
• The general formula is CnH2nOn.

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 Monosaccharides
Aldoses
Glyceraldehyde
Ketoses
Erythrose
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate DHAP
Ribose
Erythrulose
Xylose
Ribulose
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Mannose

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 Important functions of
Monosaccharides
• Glyceraldehyde reference sugar.
• Dihydroxy acetone in glycolysis to produce
energy.
• Erythrose produced during the breakdown of
glucose.
• Ribose essential part of RNA and DNA.

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• Glucose is the main sugar in human body.
Most common source of glucose is sucrose.
• It serves as first line of nutrition.
• Energy is produced through from glucose
through glycolysis and citric acid cycle.
• Brain utilize only glucose for its energy
requirements.
• Normal blood glucose level is:
• Fasting------ 80 to 100 mg%
• Random------ 100 to 120 mg%.

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• Excess of glucose is converted into
glycogen.
• If Glycogen store in muscles and liver is full
then it is converted into lipids and stored in
adipose tissues.
• Glucose combines with Galactose and forms
lactose in mammary glands.
• Appearance of glucose in urine is the sign of
diabetes mellitus.

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• Glucose produces NADPH2 through HMP
pathway(hexose monophosphate ) and
NADH2 through glycolysis.
• Glutathione tripeptide (protein in nature).
• It is the major antioxidant produced by the cell
(RBC’s in particular).
• It is used in DNA synthesis and repair,
synthesis of proteins and prostaglandin, amino
acid transport and enzyme activation.

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• Galactose Epimers of glucose.
• Present in lactose.
• Used in development of brain tissues.
• Mannose is converted to glucose in-vivo.
• Reduction of mannose develop Mannitol which
is used therapeutically as osmotic diuretic in
cases of cerebral edema.
• Fructose is the sweetest of all sugar.
• It is present in appreciable amount in seminal
fluid and act as source of energy for
spermatozoa.
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• Further, each carbon atom that supports
a hydroxyl group (so, all of the carbons except
for the primary and terminal carbon) is chiral,
giving rise to a number of isomeric forms, all
with the same chemical formula.
• For instance Galactose and glucose are
both Aldohexose but have different physical
structures and chemical properties.

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 Disaccharides

Maltose

Lactose Sucrose
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• A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate)
composed of two monosaccharides.
• It is formed when two sugars are joined
together and a molecule of water is removed.
• For example, milk sugar (lactose) is made from
glucose and Galactose.
• whereas cane sugar (sucrose) is made from
glucose and fructose.

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• A disaccharide (also called a double
sugar or biose is the sugar formed when
two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are joined
by Glycosidic linkage.
• A Glycosidic bond or Glycosidic linkage is a
type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate
(sugar) molecule to another group which may or
may not be another carbohydrate.

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 Functions of Disaccharides
• Maltose:
• Also known as fruit sugar.
• Produced in body by the action of salivary and
pancreatic amylase on starch.
• It is a reducing sugar.
• Lactose:
• Also called milk sugar.
• Lactose is fermented into lactic acid by the
action of bacteria.
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• Lactate intolerance:
– It is caused by inherit or acquired deficiency of an
enzyme called lactase.
– Patience cannot digest milk sugar found in dairy
products.
– Signs & Symptoms:
– Nausea, Cramps, Bloating, abdominal pain, flatulence
and diarrhea.
– Treatment:
– Avoid dairy products and take diet which is rich in
calcium e.g. yogurt and green vegetables.

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• Sucrose:
• Also known as cane sugar and table sugar.
• It exhibits the phenomenon of inversion and is
also known as “invert sugar’’.
• Change of rotation of plane polarized light
from right to left (dexo to levo is known as
“phenomenon of inversion.”
• Sucrose being ad disaccharide is dexo-rotatory
but after hydrolysis it is converted into
levorotatory.

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• Oligosaccharide:
• It is a saccharide polymer containing a small
number (typically two to ten of simple sugars
(monosaccharides).
• Functions of Oligosaccharides:
– Oligosaccharides can have many functions including
cell recognition and cell binding. For example,
glycolipids have an important role in the immune
response.

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• Not less then three carbon atoms.
• Have reducing capacity except polymers most
of have sweet taste.

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 Functions of Carbohydrates
• Variety of important functions in living
systems:
– nutritional (energy storage, fuels, metabolic
intermediates)
– structural (components of nucleotides, plant
and bacterial cell walls, arthropod
exoskeletons, animal connective tissue)

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– informational (cell surface of eukaryotes --
molecular recognition, cell-cell communication)
– osmotic pressure regulation (bacteria)
– Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain
large quantities of hydroxyl groups.

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 Carbohydrates

Polyhydroxy aldehyde

Poly hydroxyl ketones

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• Sugars that contain an aldehyde group are
called Aldoses.

• Sugars that contain a keto group are

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• Glycogen, Starch, Dextrins, Dextrans and
cellulose are the example of Homo
polysaccharides.
• Mucilages, Hemicellulose and Muco-
polysaccharides are the example of Hetero-
polysaccharides.

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 Overview
All carbohydrates can be classified as
either:
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• oligosaccharides or Polysaccharides.

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• Monosaccharides-
one unit of carbohydrate
• Disaccharides-
Two units of carbohydrates. Anywhere from two to
ten monosaccharide units, make up an oligosaccharide.
• Polysaccharides
are much larger, containing hundreds of
monosaccharide units.

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• Carbohydrates also can combine with lipids to form
gly-colipids
OR
• With proteins to form gly-coproteins.

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 Isomers
• Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular
formula, but have a different arrangement of the
atoms in space. (different structures).

• For example, a molecule with the formula AB2C2, has

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Isomer 1

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Isomer 2

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Examples of isomers:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactyhose
4. Mannose

Same chemical formula C6 H12 O6.

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 EPIMERS
• EPIMERS are sugars that differ in
configuration at ONLY 1 POSITION.
• Examples of epimers :
– D-glucose & D-galactose (epimeric at C4)
– D-glucose & D-mannose (epimeric at C2)
– D-idose & L-glucose (epimeric at C5)

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 ENANTIOMERS

Non-Superimposable COMPLETE mirror

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The two members of the pair are designated as D and
L forms.

In D form the OH group on the asymmetric carbon is

In L form the OH group is on the left side.

D-glucose and L-glucose are enantiomers:

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