Chapter-one-Introduction to heat and mass transfer

Outline of chapter one

• Conduction heat transfer
• Convective heat transfer
• Radiation heat transfer
• Diffusion mass transfer
 THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

 We all know from experience that a cold canned drink left in a room
warms up and a warm canned drink left in a refrigerator cools down.
 This is accomplished by the transfer of energy from the warm medium to
the cold one.
 The energy transfer is always from the higher temperature medium to the
lower temperature one, and the energy transfer stops when the two
mediums reach the same temperature.
 Heat:-is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference. The science that deals with
the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is heat transfer.
• After all, we can determine the amount of heat transfer for any system undergoing
any process using a thermodynamic analysis alone.

• The reason is that thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as
a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no
indication about how long the process will take.

• A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred to

realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle.
• In practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat
transfer per unit time) than we are with the amount of it.
• For example, we can determine the amount of heat transferred from a
thermos bottle as the hot coffee inside cools from 90°C to 80°C by a
thermodynamic analysis alone.
• But a typical user or designer of a thermos is primarily interested in how
long it will be before the hot coffee inside cools to 80°C, and a
thermodynamic analysis cannot answer this question.
• Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the times
of cooling or heating, as well as the variation of the temperature, is the
subject of heat transfer (Fig. 1–1).
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from
one equilibrium state to another.

• Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that lack
thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a non-equilibrium phenomenon.
Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be based on the
principles of thermodynamics alone.

• However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the framework for the

science of heat transfer. The first law requires that the rate of energy
transfer into a system be equal to the rate of increase of the energy
of that system.
Continued….

• The second law requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature
(Fig. 1–2).

• This is like a car parked on an inclined road that must go downhill in the direction of
decreasing elevation when its brakes are released.

• It is also analogous to the electric current flowing in the direction of decreasing voltage
or the fluid flowing in the direction of decreasing total pressure.
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature difference.

• There can be no net heat transfer between two mediums that are at the same temperature.

• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference
is the driving force for electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for
fluid flow.

• The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature
gradient (the temperature difference per unit length or the rate of change of temperature) in
that direction.

• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.
Application Areas of Heat
Transfer
 ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER

The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups:

1). rating
2). sizing problems

 The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an
existing system at a specified temperature difference.

 The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the
two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection,
and radiation.
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference, and all modes are from the high temperature medium to a lower
temperature one.
 Continued…

1) CONDUCTION :- is the transfer of energy from the

more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interactions between
the particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
 Continued… • In the limiting case of x 0, the equation above reduces to
the differential form:-

which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction

after J. Fourier, who expressed it first in his heat
transfer text in 1822.
where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal
conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the
ability of a material to conduct heat.
Thermal Conductivity

• Thus the thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer

through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit temperature difference.

• The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the ability of the material to

conduct heat. A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good

heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or

insulator.

• The thermal conductivities of some common materials at room temperature are given in

Table1.1
 Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity, which represents how

fast heat diffuses through a material and is
defined as
EXAMPLE-1
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25
m thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal
conductivity is k 0.8 W/m · °C (Fig. 1–24). The temperatures of the
inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be
15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine (a) the
rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat
loss to the home owner if the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.
 2. CONVECTION

• Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or

gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.

• The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.

• In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent

fluid is by pure conduction.

• The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat transfer between the solid surface

and the fluid, but it also complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
 Continued…
• Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to

flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or

the wind.

• In contrast, convection is called natural (or free) convection if

the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by

density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid.

The rate of convection heat transfer is

observed to be proportional to the temperature

As is the surface area through which convection

difference, and is conveniently expressed by heat transfer takes place, Ts is the surface

Newton’s law of cooling as temperature, and T is the temperature of the

fluid sufficiently far from the surface

where h is the convection heat transfer

coefficient in W/m2 · °C
RADIATION
•
• Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or

photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or

molecules.

• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not

require the presence of an intervening medium.

• In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no

attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth
• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an

absolute temperature Ts (in k) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

Where, = 5.67 108 W/m2 · is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is
called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is
called blackbody radiation (Fig. 1–34).
• The radiation emitted by all
real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the
same temperature, and is expressed as

Where, is the emissivity of the surface.

• Another important radiation property of a surface is • In general, both and of a surface depend on

its absorptivity , which is the fraction of the radiation the temperature and the wavelength of the

radiation.
energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the

surface. • Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the

emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface

• Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0<<1.
at a given temperature and wavelength are
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on

it. That is, a blackbody is a perfect absorber ( 1) as it equal.

• The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation

is a perfect emitter.
is determined from.
Cont… where Q· incident is the rate at which
radiation is incident on the surface and
is the absorptivity of the surface.
When a surface of emissivity and
surface area As at an absolute
temperature Ts is completely enclosed
by a much larger (or black) surface at
absolute temperature Tsurr separated by
a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation, the net rate of
radiation heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by (Fig. 1–36)
Diffusion mass transfer

• Diffusion is a mass transfer phenomenon that causes the distribution

of a chemical species to become more uniform in space as time passes.
• In this case, species is a chemical dissolved in a solvent or a
component in a gas mixture, such as the oxygen in air. The
mass transfer of a species is the evolution of its concentration in space
and time
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