Discourse analysis

Definition of discourse
 What is discourse?
 What is the difference between
discourse and discourse analysis?
• Discourse = a conversation or text
• Discourse = collection of texts or
conversations
• Discourse = a shared way of talking or
creating texts (code)
• Discourses = codes, languages, ways of
speaking of a topic
• Discourse is language beyond the level of a
sentence
• Discourse refers to the use of language in
social contexts
 Discourse Analysis (DA)
• Discourse analysis is the study of language
viewed communicatively and/or of
communication viewed linguistically
• Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies
is the analysis of written, vocal, or sign
language use or any significant Semiotic
event.
 Discourse analysis and Pragmatics

Activity
• What is the similarity and difference between
discourse and pragmatics?
Approaches to the explanation of discourse
analysis
• Speech Act Theory: the study of the activities performed by
utterances
• The Ethnography of Communication: a broadly
anthropologically oriented approach which investigates
communicative competencies specific to different cultures;
• Pragmatics: the branch of linguistics which studies language
use, as opposed to the structure of language;
• Conversation Analysis: the analysis of the sequential
organisation of interaction.
• Interactional Sociolinguistics: the analysis of the ways in
which common grammatical knowledge may be mobilised by
different social or ethnic groups
 Speech act theory
• Speech act is used to describe actions
performed via utterance
• It is language used to do things, perform acts
 The three acts in one single speech act or
event we perform
• Locutionary
• Illocutionary
• Perlocutionary
 Illocutionary
• Illocutionary acts are the real actions which
are performed by the utterance
• It is the communicative force of an utterance
• It is the intention/desire of the speaker
 Locutionary act
• Locutionary is the basic act of an utterance or
producing a meaningful linguistic expressions.
We can say performing an act of saying
something or physical utterances of words
 Perlocutionary act
• Perlocutionary act is the effect produced on
the listener when they listen a locutionary act
or it is the hearers response
The distinction between these kinds of acts with
the example of saying “Shoot her!,” which he
trisects as follows:
• Locution
• He said to me “Shoot her!”
• Illocution
• He urged (or advised, ordered, etc.) me to
shoot her
• Perlocution
• He persuaded me to shoot her
Classification of illocutionary speech acts:
• Assertives: speech acts that commit a speaker
to the truth of the expressed proposition
Example: reciting a creed
• Directives: speech acts that are to cause the
hearer to take a particular action,
Example: requests, commands and advice
• Commissives: speech acts that commit a
speaker to some future action
Example: promises and oaths
• Expressives: speech acts that express the
speaker's attitudes and emotions towards the
proposition
Example: congratulations, excuses and thanks
• Declarations: speech acts that change the
reality in accord with the proposition of the
declaration,
Example: baptisms, pronouncing someone
guilty or pronouncing someone husband and
wife
Relevance theory and
politeness
Relevance theory
• Relevance Theory aims at exploring the nature
of communication.
• It studies human communication from a
cognitive perspective.
• Therefore, it can be applied to discourse
analysis so as to explore coherence, which is
an important factor in discourse analysis
 Politeness
• Politeness is the use of communicative
strategies to create and maintain social harmony
• The concept of politeness is crucial in any
communication, but particularly in cross
cultural communication
• Communication with others must take culture
into consideration
• Norms of politeness vary from culture to
culture
 Positive politeness

• Positive politeness strategies seek to minimize

the threat to the hearer’s positive face. They
are used to make the hearer feel good about
himself, his interests or possessions.
• Politeness theory In addition to hedging and
attempts to avoid conflict, some strategies of
positive politeness include statements of
friendship, solidarity and compliments.
 Negative politeness

• Negative politeness strategies are oriented

towards the hearer’s negative face and
emphasize avoidance of imposition on the
hearer.
• Negative face is the desire to remain
autonomous so the speaker is more fitting to
the listener, through distancing styles like
apologies.
• Politeness strategy: A strategy that is used in
communication that emphasize on the polite
words and action.
• Positive politeness: directed toward the
positive face of the addressee, the eternal
desire that his want must be considered as
desire.
• Negative politeness: Redressive action
directed to the addressee’s negative face, his
want to have freedom of action is unhindered
and his attention is unimpeded.
 Implicature
• Implicature: part of what is communicated
implicitly in what is explicitly expressed.
• It is what is implied indirectly

• It is implied meaning of an utterance

 Cooperative principle
• cooperative principle: set of norms expected in conversation. Grice
proposes four maxims expected in conversation.
• Maxim of Quantity
 provide the right quantity of information
 Make your contribution information enough;
 Do not make your contribution more informal than necessary.
• Maxim of Quality
 make your contribution true, i.e
 Do not say what you believe is not rue;
 Do not say that for which you lack evidence.
• Maxim of Relation
 Be relevant
• Maxim of Manner
 be perspicuous
 Avoid obscurity of expression;
 Avoid ambiguity
 Violation of a maxim
Violation of the Quantity Maxim:
 Supervisor: Did you read the articles and write up the review of
literature?
 Supervisee: I certainly read the articles. Weren’t they captivating!
Violation of the Quality Maxim
 A: You stained my dress with red wine, you klutz!
 B: Nobody will notice.
Violation of the Relation Maxim
 A: Did you like my presentation?
 B: The attendance was impressive, wasn’t it?
Violation of the Manner Maxim
 Abebe: Major Frank Burns, M.D., manic-depressive. It’s an honourary
title.
 Assefa: He’s also schizoid.
 Kebede: He sleeps in two bunks. (M.A.S.H.)
 Discourse in communication
• Discourse is another word for any kind of
written or spoken communication.
• Discourse is a base for communication
 Activity
• What are types of discourses?
• What are the criteria to classify discourse?
 Types of discourse
• by medium: spoken, written, recorded, etc.
• by (sub)genre: literary, expository, academic,
conversation, etc.
• by register: formal, informal, argotic, etc.
• by context: classroom, workplace, political, etc.
• by way of obtaining: solicited, unsolicited, etc.
• by power context: equal, unequal, open, hidden etc.
• by illocutionary force: persuading, concealing, etc.
• by mode/semiotic system: language, gesture,
material goods, art
• By device: electronic/e-discourse/ etc.
 Activity
• What are discourse markers?
• What are types of discourses markers?
• What are the criteria to classify discourse
markers?
 Discourse Markers
• Discourse markers are words and phrases that
are used to manage and organize the structure
of discourse.
• Discourse markers are also known as linking
words, linking phrases or sentence connectors.
• Discourse markers are helpful tools in making
speech and writing both logical and
coherent. Without discourse markers, the
connections between sentences and paragraphs
wouldn't be as smooth or clear.
 Functions of Discourse Markers
According to this list, discourse markers are used
 to initiate discourse,
 to mark a boundary in discourse (shift/partial shift in
topic),
 to preface a response or a reaction,
 to serve as a filler or delaying tactic,
 to aid the speaker in holding the floor,
 to effect an interaction or sharing between speaker and
hearer,
 to bracket the discourse either cataphora or anaphora,
 to mark either foregrounded or backgrounded
information
 Conversation analysis

• CA is an approach to the study of social interaction,

embracing both verbal and non-verbal conduct, in
situations of everyday life

• It is the study of verbal interaction

• CA aims to 'describe, analyze, and understand talk

as a basic and constitutive feature of human social
life'
• CA focus on a casual conversation
• It is concerned with institution centered
interactions, such as those occurring in
doctors' offices, courts, law enforcement, help
lines, educational settings, and the mass media
• It a distinctive and successful approach to the
analysis of social interaction
• Conversation Analysis studies naturally-
occurring talk
• It is distinct from discourse analysis in focus
and method
 The difference between CA and DA

• CA is distinct from discourse analysis in focus and method

• CA’s focus is on processes involved in social interaction

and does not include written texts or larger socio cultural
phenomena.

• Its method is aimed at determining the resources that the

interactional participants use and rely on to produce
interactional contributions and make sense of the
contributions of others.
 Turn-taking principle
• Turn-taking is a type of organization
in conversation and discourse where
participants speak one at a time in
alternating turns.
• In conversation analysis, turn-taking is a
term for the manner in which orderly
conversation normally takes place.
 Narratives
• There are at least two levels in a narrative
conversation:
• a WHAT (What is told?) to be considered and a
HOW (How is it told?)
• These two levels have been given different names
by different critics. In structuralism terminology the
WHAT of the narrative is called story, the HOW is
called discourse.
• These two levels are further subdivided & analyzed
as follows:
• Story: The story consists of events (things that
happen) and so-called existents, the characters that
make things happen or have things happen to them
and the setting
• Story elements can be approached with different
tools of analysis (plot, character, space)
• Discourse: Discourse is the category that comprises
various elements of transmission
• Discourse is directly accessible to us, since we only
learn about the story via discourse
• Elements of discourse thus determine our perception
of the story (what ‘actually’ happened)
• In the analysis of discourse one tries to determine
how certain effects are achieved
• Argumentation

• Argumentation theory, or argumentation, is the interdisciplinary

study of how conclusions can be reached through logical reasoning
based on premises
• It includes the arts and sciences of civil debate, dialogue,
conversation, and persuasion
• It studies rules of inference, logic, and procedural rules in both
artificial and real world settings.
• Argumentation includes debate and negotiation which are
concerned with reaching mutually acceptable conclusions.
• An argument must have at least two premises and one conclusion
• Argumentation is used in law, for example in trials, in
preparing an argument to be presented to a court, and in
testing the validity of certain kinds of evidence

Identifying the structure of argumentation, the pragma-

dialectical approach and the social-psychological approach

• Typically an argument has an internal structure, which

comprises the following elements:
 a set of assumptions or premises

 a method of reasoning or deduction and

 a conclusion or point
• In its most common form, argumentation involves
an individual and an interlocutor/or opponent
engaged in dialogue, each contending differ
positions and trying to persuade each other

The quality of argumentation

• The quality of argument is determined by two
criteria:
transparent validity
quality of premises
 Persuasion

• In communication, people do not only express their feelings,

arguments or ideas but also influence other people. Influence

can be related to persuasion.

• Persuasion is defined as human communication design to

influence others by modifying their beliefs, values and attitudes

• In doing the persuasion, the persuader will needs the language

to persuade others so that they can interpret and follow the

message.
• Persuasion can be said as a part of Discourse Analysis
which is a strategy to try creating a particular effect that
is used purposefully
• It concerns with the language used for communication
and how addressee worked in linguistic message in order
to interpret them
• The goal of persuasion is to convince the readers’ target,
to believe the message and to do something as the result
• Persuasion is also used in the area of advertising
• Persuasive discourse is any writing in which an author is expressing

facts or opinions to convince the readers.

Identifying theories of persuasion and Persuasive tools

• The common goal in persuasive speech is to influence the audience’s

view on a certain subject to change their opinion completely or

simply strengthening already existing view

• In order to accomplish this, speakers use a variety of arguments and

strategies, most of which can be summed up into the three rhetorical

appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos.

• One can use these three appeals /persuasive tools/ to achieve

speaker’s persuasive goals.

• Ethos: Ethos is an appeal to credibility or character. Speakers or writers

use ethos to convince audiences in case of reliable, honest and credible.

• Logos: is an appeal to logic or reason. The principal role or purpose of

logos is to identify and simplify its means. Logos are clear and simple

graphical elements. Logos provides visual perception and

comprehension.

• pathos: is an appeal to emotion. Speakers use pathos to evoke an

emotional response of their audience. Sometimes it is a positive

emotion such as happiness, an image of people may enjoy themselves.

Some speakers use negative emotion such as pain. Pathos can also

include emotions like, fear and guilty.

• Discourse and cognition

• Cognition: the mental action or process of

acquiring knowledge
• Discourse and cognition refers piece of
language and its understanding
• Discourse and cognition are treated as distinct
but linked entities within CDA
• Discourse and culture

• Discourse analysis grows out of critical, socio-cultural, socio-logical, or

historical analysis

• Through discourse, intercultural and cross-cultural communications are

studied

• There is sometimes an ambiguity in the use of the terms “intercultural”

and “cross-cultural” communication.

• We take “intercultural communication” to signal the study of distinct

cultural or other groups in interaction with each other

• We take “cross-cultural communication” to signal the independent study

of the communicative characteristics of distinct cultural or other groups.

 The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis /linguistics relativity/

• In linguistics, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states that

there are certain thoughts of an individual in one
language that cannot be understood by those who live in
another language.

• The hypothesis states that the way people think is

strongly affected by their native languages.

• It is a controversial theory championed by linguist

• It is the proposal that the particular language we
speak influences the way we think about reality
• It is about how language influences thought

• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proclaimed the

influence of language on thought and perception
• According to this hypothesis the speakers of
different languages think and perceive reality in
different ways and that each language has its own
world view
• The issues this hypothesis raised not only pertain to the field of
linguistics but also had a bearing on Psychology, Ethnology,
Anthropology, Sociology, Philosophy, as well as on the natural
sciences

• Sapir’s linguistic relativity hypothesis can be stated as follows:

• a) The language we speak and think in shapes the way we

perceive the world.

• b) The existence of the various language systems implies that

the people who think in these different languages must
perceive the world differently.
• The linguistic relativity principle, or the
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, states the speakers
of different languages will tend to think and
behave differently depending on the language
they use
• According to this hypotesis language influences
the thought and behavior of its speakers
 Critical discourse analysis/CDA/
• CDA is a type of discourse analysis that primarily
challenges social inequality
• CDA takes explicit position, and understand, expose,
and ultimately resist social inequality
• C DA is more involved in the inner psychology of
people
• CDA typically focused on political speeches, policy
documents, textbooks, radio shows and newspaper
• The main tenets of CDA are the following:
 CDA addresses social problems
 Power relations are discursive
 Discourse constitutes society and culture
 Discourse does ideological work
 Discourse is historical
 The link between text and society is mediated
 Discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory
 Discourse is a form of social action.
 Gender and racism in discourse
• These are the main concerns of CDA
• Discourse is an instrument to expose gender
and racism problems
 Intercultural communication
• Intercultural communication refers to the communication
between people from two different cultures.
• Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive,
transactional, contextual process, in which people from
different cultures create shared meanings.
• Intercultural communication refers to the effects on
communication behavior, when different cultures interact
together.
• Intercultural communication is the study and
practice of communication across cultural
contexts