Computer vs Other Human Inventions

• When we examine the • What other human

role of the computer in inventions have had the
our lives, we find that it same impact?
plays a part in nearly – Language
everything we do – Taming (controlling) fire
– Communication – Electricity
– Commerce – Refrigeration
– Transportation – The automobile
– Education – The airplane
– Manufacturing
– Research, etc
 Computers from 1950s to Today
1950s Today
Cost: hundreds of thousands of $300 - $1200 for normal
$ to millions of $ (desktop/laptop) computers
Thousands of instructions per Billions of instructions per
second second (supercomputers > 1
trillion per second)
Little main memory (a few 4-8 Billion bytes or more
thousand bytes?)
Very large machines Can be carried in your pocket
or your brief case
Few users (mostly the Billions of users
engineers and programmers)
 Before the Generations
• We describe computer technology by generation
– We are currently in the 4th generation
• Prior to the 1st generation, we still had computational
devices
– The abacus (2000-4000 BC?), unknown inventors
• used for simple counting
– Mechanical calculators
• Pascal and Leibniz (early to mid 1600s)
– Programmable device
• Jacquard’s Loom (circa 1800)
– Babbage’s programmable devices
• Difference engine (1822)
• Analytical engine (1832)
• neither device was completed by Babbage at the time as he ran
Abacus, Calculators, Loom,
Analytical Engine
 More on Babbage
• Device to compute mathematical tables
– Use difference equations
– Steam powered to rotate stalks of gears
– Rotation of gears performs + and –
• Analytical engine programmable for different
types of equations – IPOS cycle, first computer!
– Input equation
– Process
– Output results (via printing press)
– Storage results (orientation of gears)
• Initial programs written by mathematician Lady
Ada Lovelace (world’s first programmer)
 The 1930s-1940s
• Leading up to the first generation
– Electricity used instead of steam power
– Some electronic circuits replace mechanical
computing
– Not general purpose – computers could compute one
type of operation, e.g., code breaking, rocket
trajectories
• Circuits used switches and possibly vacuum tubes
• Some of these early devices were still analog in
nature (not using 1s and 0s)
– Slow, expensive, unreliable
• Demand for computers came from World War II
 Notable Early Computers
Name Year Nationality Comments
Zuse Z3 1941 German Electromechanical,
programmable
Atanasoff-Berry 1942 US Electronic, non-
programmable
Colossus Mark 1 1944 UK Electronic,
programmable
Harvard (Mark 1) 1944 US Decimal, electronic,
programmable
Colossus Mark 2 1944 UK Electronic,
programmable
Zuse Z4 1945 German Electromechanical,
programmable
ENIAC 1946 US Electronic,
programmable
 First Generation
• ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),
Univ of Pennsylvania, Feb 1946, $500K
– First general purpose programmable electronic computer
– Weighed 30 tons, about 1800 square feet, 17,468 vacuum tubes,
7200 crystal diodes, 1500 relays, 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors,
millions of hand-soldered joints
– Input from punch cards, output using an offline accounting machine
for a printer, magnetic tape used to move output
• Most first generation computers were one-of-a kind laboratory
machines
– Experimental, large, costly, slow, unreliable because of vacuum
tubes, programmed using machine language
– Used only be the engineers and technicians of the lab
– By the mid 1950s, computer companies were selling mainframe
computers to those who could afford them
The ENIAC
 Second Generation
• Started around 1959
– Transistors replaced vacuum tubes
– Magnetic core memories introduced for memory storage
• expensive but permitted up to 1MByte of storage
– Disk drum (data drum) introduced for storage
• Smaller computers meant faster computers
– Less distance for current to travel
• Cheaper computers
– Components were less costly, computer companies were
formed, computers were no longer “1 of a kind”
• Led to increased number of computers and therefore
increased usage
• Need for software support to run programs
Vacuum Tube, Transistor,
Magnetic Core Memory
 Third Generation
• Started around 1963 (or as late as 1965)
• Circuits placed on silicon chips (integrated circuits) were used
to replace transistors (logic) and mag core memory
• Made computers smaller, faster, cheaper, more easily produced
• Led to more computers being manufactured and purchased
– Computer users were no longer (necessarily) programmers/engineers
or even highly trained
– Resident monitor upgraded to full operating system
– Networks and dumb terminals permitted access remotely (from
outside of the computer room)
• Minicomputers introduced (scaled down mainframes, cheaper,
not as powerful) allowed smaller organizations to own
computers
• Computer families introduced
 Fourth Generation
• Started as early as 1971 (or maybe 1974)
• Miniaturization led to CPU on one chip
– The transistor count has increased exponentially over time,
roughly doubling every 18-24 months
• SSI – 10-20 (early 60s) MSI – 100s (mid to late 60s)
• LSI – 1000s (early 70s) VLSI – 100,000s (late 70s)
• ULSI – millions+ (80s and beyond)
• 2012: up to 2.5 billion transistors on a CPU
– Led to the creation of the microprocessor
• Microprocessor led to the first called microcomputers
– The first personal computers introduced in the 1970s,
largely hobbyist toys, little main memory, few software
titles, I/O largely limited to keyboard, printer or tv set,
cassette drive
Chip with Miniaturized Circuitry
 Moore’s Law
• Gordon Moore, one of the
founders of Intel
– Noticed the increased transistor
count as early as 1965
– Used it to predict transistor
count for the future
– Doubling of transistors every
18-24 months
• If we explore
microprocessors, we see that Computer engineers predict that we
Moore’s Law has come true will no longer be able to fulfill
since 1970 until present day! Moore’s Law
(see the next slide) hasn’t happened yet
but might happen any year now
– This is not a physical law, it is
an observation and a prediction
 Other 4 Generation Inventions
th

• Laptop (and smaller) computers using LCD

screens, long lasting batteries
• Laser printers, touch screens
• Broadband wireless network access
• Gigabyte memory storage, terabyte disk storage
• CPU innovations
– Pipelined CPUs
– Parallel processing
– Multicore processors
– On-chip and off-chip cache memories
– Register windows
–
 Evolution of Computer Software
• Programming language evolution
– Machine language (1st generation)
– Assembly language (1st and 2nd generations)
– High level languages (2nd generations and onward)
– Structured Programming (3rd and 4th generations)
– Object-oriented languages (4th generation)
– Visual programming (4th generation)
 Evolution of the Computer User
• 1950s – users were engineers and programmers
– They wrote programs and the code needed for I/O
– Tested them out, debugged the code and fixed the
hardware
• 1960s and 1970s – users were highly trained
employees but not necessarily programmers
– Used operating system commands to run their “jobs”
including for instance JCL commands in IBM mainframes
and VMS commands on DEC’s Vax computers
• 1980s – PCs became available
– Simple DOS commands, later GUIs
• 1990s up to today – point and click, look and feel
 Impact on our Society
• Our parents (our grandparents) generation used to think of
computers as
– Scary, unknowable, threatening, big brother
• Today, nearly everyone on the planet has Internet access
• When do you not use a computer in same aspect of your life?
– Driving? GPS, digital radio, antilock brakes
– News? Gathered and disseminated by computer, possibly read on-
line
– Movies? writing, editing, special effects, marketing, etc all involve
computers
– Communication? Cell phones, satellites, etc.
– Shopping? credit card communication, store inventory,
computerized cash registers
– Going outside? Weather prediction modeling on computers
 From Resident Monitor To OS
• Early computers had no OS
– Programmers had to include code to handle all
input/output and program startup
– Resident monitor alleviated need for some of these
duties
• Resident monitor developed starting in the 1950s
to handle punch card instructions for I/O
• OS developed out of resident monitors by adding
more and more utilities and support for the user
– This evolution started in the late 1950s and continues
today
– Most early operating systems were developed to
support only one hardware platform
 Noteworthy Operating Systems
• GM-NAA I/O – General Motors for IBM 701, collection of resident monitors to support
the user, 1955
• Atlas Supervisor – Manchester University, first true OS, permitted concurrent user
access and virtual memory
• BESYS – Bell Labs, 1957 for IBM 704, handle input from punch cards and tape, output
to printer or tape, supported FORTRAN programs
• IBSYS – for IBM 7090 and 7094, 1960, OS commands were embedded in programs
using $ to indicate OS command rather than program instruction (JCL would copy this
format later)
• CTSS – MIT, 1961, first true time-sharing system
• EXEC 8 – Remington Rand’s UNIVAC, 1964, supported batch, time sharing and real-
time processing
• TOPS-10 – DEC PDP-10, 1964, time sharing with shared memory
• MULTICS – 1964, hardware independent through modules, dynamic linking of program
code, access control lists, storing process memory like files, hierarchical file system
• OS 360 – IBM 360 (and later IBM 370), 1966, batch processing with threading within a
single task, JCL commands for I/O, virtual memory, hierarchical file system, virtual
storage access method (used for database access), parent/child spawning, network
communications
• Unics – AT&T, 1969, an early precursor to Unix based on MULTICS
 History of Unix
• Up until this time, most OSs were developed for
specific hardware
• One goal behind Unix was to be portable
– Hardware independent, or an OS that could run on
multiple platforms
• Features to include
– File system administration
– Strong network components, TCP/IP
– Security
– Custom software installation
– Define your own kernel programs
– Shells, scripting
 Unix/Linux Timeline
• Up until the mid 1970s, Unix was only available
commercially (for sale)
– Thompson, in a sabbatical at UC Berkeley developed the
Berkeley Standard Distribution (BSD) which would
compete with Bell Labs’ Unix
– BSD spawned SunOS, FreeBSD, NetBSD and
eventually MacOS X
– Bell Labs Unix spawned AT&T Unix, Solaris (Sun), HP-
UX, AIX (IBM) and others
– GNU’s was a project developed by Richard Stallman at
MIT
– 1991 – Linus Torvalds, unhappy with his OS class’ OS
begins developing Linux, asking OS programming
community for help
Unix/
Linux
Timeli
ne
Linux Distributions
 Popular Linux Distros
• Two most popular distributions are Red Hat and Debian
– Both have splintered to create many sub-distributions
• Red Hat – both open source and commercial versions
available, SELinux, Red Hat Package Manager (rpm)
– Fedora
– CentOS
• Debian – completely open source (not commercially
available), has over 20,000 software packages available for
it, uses APT package manager, can boot from live CD
– Ubuntu
• SLS/Slackware – German version of Linux, bought by
Novel in 2003
– SuSE
 Free Software Movement
• Started by Richard Stallman as part of the GNU’s
project
– GNUs – GNUs not Unix – a joke by Stallman to define
his project using a recursive definition
– He attempted to enlist help in the development of GNUs –
a completely open source Unix-like OS
– The goal was to build an open source operating system
• Free as in freedom, not beer
– Software are ideas and ideas should not be owned, so all
software should be made available not just for free but in
source code so that code could be shared and developed
• Others embraced the open source initiative, they did
not necessarily think that all programming endeavors
should be free
 Open Source and GPL
• Stallman felt all software should be • Stallman defined the
free, particularly anything GNUs Public License
developed out of other free software – Anything created with
• Torvalds adopted an attitude that open source tools must be
Linux and the other software published using the GPL
created for Linux – Stallman called this a
– can be available in open source “copyleft” instead of a
– can be sold if the programmer chooses copyright
• This led to a split – Both groups use the GPL
(most of Linux is
– Free Software Foundation –
published under the GPL)
Stallman’s group
– Open Source Movement – those who • The GPL is now used in
work in the open source community other forms of publishing
but permit commercial products to be – see for instance wikimedia
built from partially open source
software
 Pre-Windows PC History
• MS-DOS – released in 1981 for the IBM PC
– IBM published their architecture and used off-the-
shelf components
– This led to “clones” (or compatibles)
– Since software available for IBM PC would run on
clones, these computers captured a larger marketshare
– MS-DOS ran on all of these
– Thus, MS-DOS was very popular
• MS-DOS
– Single tasking
– Text-based
– Most commands revolved around file operations (DOS
= disk operating system)
 Xerox PARC  Macintosh
• Xerox Palo Alto Research Center
– Artificial intelligence research, programmers implemented
windows based operating system in the 1970s using object-
oriented programming
– They offered tours of their facility where they showed off
their operating system (Jobs and Wozniak of Apple saw this
when they took a tour of Xerox Parc in the late 70s)
• With the success of the Apple I and II personal
computers, Jobs and Wozniak started development of
other projects
– Jobs project was Apple Lisa but he was kicked off the project
when it ran into delays and went over budget!
• Lisa released first (1983), too expensive to be
successful ($10K/computer), Mac released in 1984, was
 Microsoft Windows
• During the development of the Macintosh and Lisa, Apple
hired Microsoft to develop software for the Macintosh
– Supposedly, this led to Bill Gates designing and implementing
Windows
• Windows 1.0 released in 1985 ran on top of MS-DOS
• Windows 2.0 released in 1987, 3.03 in 1990, 3.1 became very
popular
• Windows NT – networking based version, 32-bits, supported
client-server networks and competitive multitasking
• Windows 95 became the first PC (stand-alone) OS from
Windows to support multitasking and networking, also
introduced plug-and-play
– Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows ME and Windows XP,
Windows Server (2003), Windows Vista in 2007 was a failure,
Windows 7 (2009), Windows 8 (late 2012)
 Mac Developments
• Mac
– Multitasking for background processes in 1987, Virtual
memory support in 1991, Desktop shortcuts in 1991, TCP/IP
networking in 1999, Unix-like kernel in 2001
• In an ironic twist, Microsoft in 2005 invested heavily in
Apple to help support the struggling company
– Their condition: change from the PowerPC processor to the
Intel processor so that Microsoft software would run on
Macintosh
– Mac hardware had always been superior to PC hardware but
not any longer
– The more expensive hardware was partially why
Macintoshes have been more expensive