 Most of the Universe consists

of matter and energy.

 Energy is the capacity to do work.
 Matter has mass and occupies space.
 All matter is composed of basic elements that
cannot be broken down to substances with
different chemical or physical properties.
 Elements are substances consisting of one type
of atom, for example Pure (24K) gold is
composed of only one type of atom, gold atoms.

 To date, about 115 different elements have been

discovered; each is chemically unique.
 That means that they behave differently in
forming molecules and reacting with other
elements and molecules
 According to the concept of the ancient Greek
philosophers, atoms are known as the
smallest particle into which an element can
be divided
 Dalton considered atom as a fundamental
particle of an element that could not be
broken down.
 However, the discovery of Enrico Fermi and

his colleagues proved that atom is divisible

Dalton's atomic theory
 Dalton's atomic theory was put forward in

1807. The main points of the theory are:

 (i) All matter is composed of atoms
 (ii) Atoms cannot be created, divided or
destroyed (the law of conservation of mass)
 (iii) All the atoms of one element are alike,

and different from those of any other element

(the law of constant proportion)
 (iv) Atoms combine together in the ratio of

small whole numbersto form compounds (the

law of multiple proportion).
 Atoms can be subdivided into electrons, protons,
and neutrons. In nuclear changes atoms can be
created, divided or destroyed.
 Atoms of an element may be different. Isotopes

are atoms of the same element, which are

different in masses.
 Some atoms e.g carbon, that forms rings and

long chains can form giant molecules containing

thousands of atoms. This indicates that
combination of atoms to form a compound may
not be in the ratio of small whole numbers.
 Subatomic particles were discovered
during the 1800s:
 Sir Joseph John Thomson discovered
electrons as cathode rays.,
 Goldstein and Rutherford accounted
for the discovery of Proton as positive
rays emanating from a perforated
Cathode.
 Sir James Chadwick detected neutrons
as neutral particles which could not be
deflected either by electric or
magnetic field.
 Rutherford proposed that an atom consisted
of a small heavy positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of light negatively
charged electrons.
 Bohr suggested that the electrons cycled in

stable orbits around the nucleus.

 These orbits had different energies.
 Electrons could gain or lose energy by

jumping from one orbit to another.

 Bohr's model of an atom is still in use to

date.
 The current model of the atom is called
the nuclear atom. This model can be
summarized as follows:
 Atoms are made up of subatomic

particles called electrons, protons and

neutrons.
 The protons and neutrons form a

compact, central body called the

nucleus of the atom.
 The electrons are distributed in space

like a cloud around the nucleus.

 The numbers of electrons and protons
in any atom are equal.

 The negative charges of the electrons

in an atom balance the positive
charges of the protons.

 All atoms are therefore electrically

neutral. This does not apply to ions,
which are of course charged particles
Fig.2: A typical structure of an atom
 The proton is located in the center
(or nucleus) of an atom, each atom
has at least one proton. Protons have
a charge of +1, and a mass of
approximately 1 atomic mass unit
(amu).
 Elements differ from each other in the
number of protons they have, e.g.
Hydrogen has 1 proton; Helium has 2.
 The neutron also is located in the
atomic nucleus. Neutron has no
charge and a mass of slightly over 1
amu.
 The electron is a very small particle
located outside the nucleus. Because
they move at speeds near the speed of
light the precise location of electrons
is hard to pin down.
 Thecharge on an electron is -1. Its
mass is negligible, it is only 1/1836
the mass of the lightest nucleus.
 The radius of a typical atom is around
1 to 2.5 angstroms (Å), whereas the
radius of a nucleus is about 10-5 Å..
 Protons and neutrons have nearly equal
masses, but they differ in charge.

 A neutron has no charge, whereas a proton

has a positive charge that exactly balances
the negative charge on an electron.

 Table l lists the charges of these three

fundamental particles, and gives their
masses expressed in grams and atomic
mass units
Particle Symbol Relative Charge Mass (g) Mass(amu)
Electron e- -1 9.109 x 10-28 0.000549
Proton P +1 1.673 x 10-24 1.007276
Neutron n 0 1.675 x 10-24 1.008665
 This is the number of protons and
neutrons in a nucleus. It is given the
symbol A.

 A nucleus is often called a nuclide

and the nuclear particles - protons
and neutrons - sometimes called
nucleons.
 Atomic Number
The atomic number of an element is the
number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom of that element.
 It is given by the symbol Z. Atomic number
is related to mass number by the following
equation: A = Z + N where N is the number
of neutrons in the nucleus and A the mass
number.
 Each element has its own atomic number.
Atomic number is not only equal to the
number of protons in a nucleus but also
equal to the number of electrons
surrounding the nucleus
 .

 Symbol of Nuclides.
 The mass number of a nuclide is often

indicated as a superscript and the atomic

number as a subscript on the left of the
symbol for an element.
 For example, means that carbon as atomic
number of 6 and mass number of 12.
Another nuclide of carbon is 126.C Since all
carbon nuclides have an atomic number of 6,
this nuclide is often 6 C written as or carbon-
14

14
 These are different atomic species of the same element.
 They differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei. They
thus have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
 Most elements exist as mixture of isotopes.
 The abundance of each in the mixture is called its isotopic
abundance.
 The isotopic abundance can be expressed as percentages
which will add up to 100% and as fractions which will add up
to 1.
 The relative abundance of isotopes in a mixture can as well be
expressed as an isotopic ratio.
 For example, a representative sample of bromine contains
50.69% atoms and 49.31% atoms, the isotopic ratio / is thus
50.69/49.31, 1.028/1 or 1.028.
 Some elements have been found to consist of only one type of
atom and are therefore isotopically pure. Examples are
fluorine, sodium, aluminium, phosphorus and iodine.
 Atomic Mass Unit.
 An atomic mass unit (amu) is one twelfth of the
mass of nuclide.
 C-12 has a mass of 12.0000amu. The actual
mass of this unit is 1.660540 x 10-27kg.
 The masses of the three fundamental particles
are as given in Table 1 above.
 The isotopic mass of any nuclide can be
calculated using these values, for examples, the
isotopic mass of is the sum of the masses of
35
17 Cl

17 protons, 18neutrons and 17 electrons.

 17(1.007276amu) + 18(1.008665amu) +
17(0.000549) = 35.288995amu.
 Experimental determinations of the isotopic
35
mass of 17 Clhave shown the value to be
34.96885amu. . The difference between the
calculated and experimental value is
0.32015amu. This is known as the mass
defect or mass deficit.
 Thus on the relative atomic mass scale,

isotopic masses are divided by one –twelfth

of the mass of the nuclide.. Thus the relative
34.96885amu
isotopic mass of 17 Cl is = 1/12 x12.0000amu
35

= 34.96885.
 The relative atomic mass is
calculated by multiplying the
relative isotopic mass of each
isotope by its percentage
abundance and adding all these
values together.
 The relative atomic mass of an

element can be defined as the

number of times one atom of the
element is heavier than one-twelfth
of the atom of carbon-12.
 A spectrum is a display or dispersion of the
components of radiation.
 It can be obtained using a spectrometer.
 The components of full spectrum of

electromagnetic radiation are Gamma rays,

x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared,
microwaves and radio waves.
Classification of Electromagnetic Radiation

The color components of light are separated along the visible

range of light. The visible range of light (400-700 nm) is
merely a small portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
 When a beam of continuous radiation
such as white light is passed through
a gaseous sample of an element, the
radiation emitted has certain
wavelengths missing.
 The spectrum of this radiation is
called an atomic absorption
spectrum.
 The wavelengths of the radiation that
have been absorbed by the atoms
show up as dark lines on the
continuous spectrum.
 When elements in their gaseous states
are heated to high temperatures or
subjected to electrical discharges,
radiation of certain wavelengths is
emitted.
 The spectrum of this radiation is

called an atomic emission spectrum.

 An absorption or emission spectrum,

which consists of lines, is called a

discontinuous or line spectrum.
 Any part of the spectrum where the lines
converge is called a continuum.
 Continuous radiation is a radiation
containing radiation of all wavelengths
within a specific range.
 Its spectrum is called a continuous
spectrum.
 The rainbow is a natural example of this
type of spectrum
Emission Spectra Complement Absorption Spectra
 Bohr related the lines in the
atomic spectra to changes in
energies of electrons in atoms.
 Electrons in atoms could only

have certain fixed energy

values.
 To each energy value was

given a number called

quantum number
 THE FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS
 The quantum numbers are parameters that describe the
distribution of electrons in the atom, and therefore its
fundamental nature. They are:
 1. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER ( n) -
Represents the main energy level, or shell occupied
by an electron. It is always a positive integer, that is n
= 1, 2, 3 ...
 2. SECONDARY QUANTUM NUMBER (l ) -
Represents the energy sublevel, or type of orbital ,
occupied by the electron. The value of l depends on
the value of n such that l = 0, 1, 2,3... n -1. This
number is sometimes also called azimuthal , or
subsidiary number: 0 means s-orbital, 1 means p-orbital
2 means d orbital, 3 means f orbital as so on as so forth
 3. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER ( ml ) - Represents
the number of possible orientations in 3-D space for each type
of orbital. Since the type of orbital is determined by l , the
value of ml ranges between – l and+ l such that ml = -
l , ...0, ...+ l

 4. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (mS ) - Represents the two

possible orientations that an electron can have
 in the presence of a magnetic field, or in relation to another
electron occupying the same orbital.
 Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital, and they
must have opposite spins. When this happens,
 the electrons are said to be paired .
 The allowed values for the spin quantum number ms are +1/2
and - ½
 1. Use quantum numbers to describe all the
electrons comprising the following elements.
 a. B
 b. Na
 c. O
 Solution. A
 B = Boron
 Atomic Number is 5
 No of electron = 5
 The four quantum nos are : n, l , ml, ms
 i. First energy level is n= 1
 ii l = n-1 i.e, 1-1= 0. This implies that the electrons in

the first energy level are in s orbital and with a

maximum population of 2 electrons. Therefore the
electrons in the first energy level are described as :
1S2
 2. The remaining three electrons are labeled as n=2, l= n-1( 0.,1) . Type
of orbitals are S and P orbital . Since l = 1, ml = -1…..0….+1. i.e there
are 3 degenerate P orbitals at the second energy level namely: 2px, 2py,
2pz. The remaining one electron will occupy one of the p degenerate
orbitals. i.e,
2S2 2P1
 An electron could jump from one energy level
to another by emitting or absorbing a fixed
amount of energy.
 Emission of radiation occurs when electron

moves from higher energy level to lower

energy level ,
 while absorption takes place on moving from

lower energy level to higher energy level.

 Thus each line in an atomic spectrum

corresponds to electrons jumping from one

specific energy level to another specific
energy level
 The energy of the photon emitted or gained
by an electron can be calculated from this
formula:
 Ephoton=RH(1/ni2–1/nf2)

 Where ni is the initial energy level of the

electron and nf is the final energy level of the
electron

 The Atomic Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
 The atomic emission spectrum of hydrogen

shows five series of lines. The series in the

visible region of the spectrum is called
Balmer series. In 1885 Balmer fitted these
lines to the following equation:
 1/λ = R[1/22 - 1/n2]
 Where λ is the wavelength, R constant known
as Rydberg constant and n a whole number.
 Balmer series corresponds to electrons falling

from higher energy levels to the first excited

state (quantum number n = 2).
 The series in the infrared is called the

Paschen series. The equation for this series is

1/λ = R(1/32 -1/n2) .
 This indicates an electron transition from

higher energy levels to quantum number n =

3.

 The series in the ultraviolet region is called
the Lyman's series.
 The equation for this series is 1/ = R(1/12 -

1/n2)
 This corresponds to an electron transition

from higher energy level to its ground state

(n = 1).
 The two series in the far infrared are Brackett

series and pfund series corresponding to

electron transition from higher energy levels
to the quantum number n = 4 and quantum
number n = 5 respectively.


Line series Region Equation

Lyman series ultraviolet 1/ = R(1/12 -1/n2)

Balmer series Visible 1/ = R(1/22 -1/n2)

Paschen series Infrared 1/ = R(1/32 -1/n2)

Bracket Far infrared 1/ = R(1/42 -1/n2)

Pfund Far infrared 1/ = R(1/52 -1/n2)

The e frequencies of the spectral lines of Hydrogen can be determined using the equation
discovered by Johann Balmer. ν=3.2881x1015s−1(1/22−1/n2
 Hydrogen Emission Lines
nth Energy level

n= 5 far- infrared Pfund series

E n=4 Far-infrared Brackett series

n= 3 Infrared Region Paschen

series

n= 2 Visible Region Balmer

series

n=1 Ultraviolet Region

avio lLyman Series
 The relationship between wavelength (λ),
frequency (ν), and the speed of light (c) is:
ν=cλ ………(1)
 The energy of electromagnetic radiation of a
particular frequency is measured in Joules
and is given by the
equation: E=hν……………..(2) h is Planck's
constant (6.62606876 x 10-34 Js)
 The electron volt is another unit of energy
that is commonly used. The electron volt (eV)
is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an
electron when it is accelerated by a potential
electrical difference of 1 volt. It is equal to
1.60218 x 10-19
 The electronic configuration of an element
describes how the electrons of its atoms are
arranged in their energy levels (shells), Sub-
energy level (sub-shells) and orbital.
 The term normally applies to atoms in their

ground state.
 The electronic configuration of an atom with

one or more electrons in an excited state is

called an excited - state configuration.
 There are three rules for determining the

exact ground state electronic configuration of

an element
 Rule 1: The aufbau principle:
 The German word aufbau means 'building

up'. This principle states that the electrons in

their ground states occupy orbitals in order
of the orbital energy levels.
 The lowest energy orbitals are always filled

first.
 Rule 2: The Pauli Exclusion Principle
 This states that no two electrons in an atom
can have the same set of four quantum
numbers.
 This implies that each orbital can hold no
more than two electrons and that the two
electrons in an orbital must have opposite
spins. Maximum numbers of electrons that
can be accommodated in the sub-shells s, p,
d and f are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively.
 The maximum number of electrons that
shells K, L, M and N can accommodate are 2,
8, 18, 32 respectively.
 These values can be obtained by making
substitution in 2n2 where n is the principal
quantum number
 Rule 3: Hund's rule
 This states that all the orbital of a sub-shell

must be occupied singly and with parallel

spins before they can be occupied in pairs.
 The order in which atomic orbitals are

occupied according to the building-up

principle is as given below.
 Each time an electron is added, we move one

place to the right. At the end of a period, we

move to the start of the next period
Atomic number Element Configuration
1 hydrogen 1s1
2 helium 1s2
8 oxygen 1s22s22p4
18 argon 1 s22s22p63s23p6
19 potassium 1s22s22p63s23p64s 1
20 calcium 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
21 scandium 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d14s2
25 manganese 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s2

30 zinc 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d104s2

 For transition metals, the electrons are added
to the d-orbitals as Z increases: {Ar}3d14s2 for
scandium, {Ar}3d24s2 for titanium, and so on.
 However, there are two exceptions; the half -

complete subshell configuration d5 and the

complete sub-shell configuration d10 turn out
experimentally to have a lower energy than
simple theory suggests, that is energies of d5
and d10 orbitals are lower that S-orbitals
 For example, the experimental electron
configuration of chromium (Z = 24) is
{Ar}3d54s1 and that of copper (Z = 29) is
{Ar}3d104s1
 Because the transition metals in the same
period differ mainly in the number of d-­
electrons, their properties are very similar.
 Most of them form ions in more than one

oxidation state, because the d-electrons have

similar energies and a variable number can be
lost.
 Electrons occupy 4p-orbitals once the 3d-

orbitals are full.

 A simple diagram can be used to illustrate the order
in which the subshells can be occupied with electrons