AC Network

Theorems
MODULE 6
Alexander T. Montero, REE, RME

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Topics
• Superposition Theorem—Independent Sources
• Superposition Theorem—Dependent Sources
• Thévenin’s Theorem—Independent Sources
• Norton’s Theorem—Independent Sources
• Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems for Dependent Sources
• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

2
Objectives
• apply the superposition theorem to determine the voltage
across or current through any component in a given circuit,
• determine the Thévenin equivalent of circuits having
independent and/or dependent sources,
• determine the Norton equivalent of circuits having
independent and/or dependent sources,
• apply the maximum power transfer theorem to determine the
load impedance for which maximum power is transferred to
• the load from a given circuit

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Superposition
Theorem —
Independent Sources

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Superposition - Independent

It states that…
The superposition theorem states the following:
The voltage across (or current through) an element is
determined by summing the voltage (or current) due to
each independent source.

In order to apply this theorem, all sources other than the

one being considered are eliminated. As in dc circuits, this
is done by replacing current sources with open circuits and
by replacing voltage sources with short circuits. The
process is repeated until the effects due to all sources have
been determined. 5

NOTE: in any given circuit , all sources are at the same frequency.
Superposition - Independent

SP01

All sources other than the one being considered are

eliminated. As in dc circuits, this is done by replacing current 6
sources with open circuits and by replacing voltage sources
with short circuits.
Superposition - Independent

SP01 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP01 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP01

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Superposition - Independent

SP02

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Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

Show another solution using CDR : 12

Superposition - Independent

SP02

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Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

Notice that VC(2) is assigned to be negative relative

to the originally assumed polarity.
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The negative sign is eliminated from the calculation
by adding (or subtracting) 180° from the
corresponding calculation.
Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP02 Solution

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Superposition - Independent

SP01

As expected, the total power delivered to the circuit must be

the summation

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Superposition - Independent

Assignment 1

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Superposition - Independent

Assignment 2

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Superposition
Theorem —
Dependent Sources

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Superposition - Dependent

considerations…
In order to analyze circuits having dependent sources, it is
first necessary to determine whether (a) the dependent
source is conditional upon a controlling element in its own
circuit or whether the controlling element is located in
some other circuit.

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(A) (B)
Superposition - Dependent

considerations…
If the controlling element is external to the circuit under
consideration, the method of analysis is the same as for an
independent source.
However, if the controlling element is in the same circuit (A),
the analysis follows a slightly different strategy.

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(A) (B)
Superposition - Dependent

SP01

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Superposition - Dependent

SP01 Solution
Since the current source in the circuit is dependent on
current through an element which is located outside of the
circuit of interest, the circuit may be analyzed in the same
manner as for independent sources.

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Superposition - Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Superposition - Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Superposition - Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Superposition - Dependent

SP02

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Superposition - Dependent

SP02 Solution
In the circuit of Figure 20–11, the dependent source is controlled
by an element located in the circuit. Unlike the sources in the
previous examples, the dependent source cannot be eliminated
from the circuit since doing so would contradict Kirchhoff’s
voltage law and/or Kirchhoff’s current law.
The circuit must be analyzed by considering all effects
simultaneously.

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Superposition - Dependent

SP02 Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, we have

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Superposition - Dependent

SP03

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Superposition - Dependent

Assignment 1
Use superposition to find the current I1 in the circuit
of Figure 20–74.

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Superposition - Dependent

Assignment 2
Use superposition to determine the voltage Vab for the circuit of Figure below

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Superposition - Dependent

SEATWORK

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Thévenin’s Theorem—
Independent Sources

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Thevenin’s- Independent

Definition
Thévenin’s theorem is a method which converts any linear
bilateral ac circuit into a single ac voltage source in series
with an equivalent impedance as shown in Figure 20–13.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

Definition
The resulting two-terminal network will be equivalent
when it is connected to any external branch or component.
If the original circuit contains reactive elements, the
Thévenin equivalent circuit will be valid only at the
frequency at which the reactances were determined.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method
1. Remove the branch across which the Thévenin equivalent
circuit is to be found. Label the resulting two terminals.
Although any designation will do, we will use the notations a
and b.
2. Set all sources to zero. As in dc circuits, this is achieved by
replacing voltage sources with short circuits and current
sources with open circuits.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method
3. Determine the Thévenin equivalent impedance, ZTh by
calculating the impedance seen between the open
terminals a and b. Occasionally it may be necessary to
redraw the circuit to simplify this process.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method
3. Determine the Thévenin equivalent impedance, ZTh by
calculating the impedance seen between the open
terminals a and b. Occasionally it may be necessary to
redraw the circuit to simplify this process.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method
4. Replace the sources removed in Step 3 and determine
the open-circuit voltage across the terminals a and b. If any
of the sources are expressed in sinusoidal form, it is first
necessary to convert these sources into an equivalent
phasor form.
For circuits having more than one source, it may be
necessary to apply the superposition theorem to calculate
the open-circuit voltage.
Since all voltages will be phasors, the resultant is found by
using vector algebra. The open-circuit voltage is the
Thévenin voltage, ETh.
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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method
5. Sketch the resulting Thévenin equivalent circuit by
including that portion of the circuit removed in Step 1.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

The Method

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution
Step 4: Because the given network consists of two independent
sources, we consider the individual effects of each upon the
open-circuit voltage.
The total effect is then easily determined by applying the
superposition theorem.

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution
Step 4: Reinserting only the voltage source into the original
circuit, as shown in Figure 20–21, allows us to find the open-
circuit voltage, Vab(1), by applying the voltage divider rule:

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution
Step 4: Now, considering only the current source as shown in
Figure 20–22, we determine Vab(2) by Ohm’s law:

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s Theorem—
Independent Sources

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Norton’s- Independent

Definition
Norton’s theorem converts any linear bilateral network
into an equivalent circuit consisting of a single current
source and a parallel impedance as shown in Figure 20–25.

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Norton’s- Independent

How?

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Norton’s- Independent

How?

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Norton’s- Independent

N to Th
It is possible to find the Norton equivalent circuit from the
Thévenin equivalent by simply performing a source conversion.

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Norton’s- Independent

SP01

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Norton’s- Independent

SP01 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP01 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP01 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP01 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP01 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution
Reinserting the voltage source into the original network, we
see from Figure 20–33 that the short-circuit current
between the terminals a and b is easily found by using
Ohm’s law.

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

Since short circuiting the current source effectively removes all

impedances, as illustrated in Figure 20–34, the short-circuit
current between the terminals a and b is given as follows:

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Norton’s- Independent

SP02 Solution

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Assignment 1

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Assignment 2

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QUIZ

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Q

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U

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I

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Z

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ANSWERS

Q
U
I
Z 88
Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

Review

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

What?
If a circuit contains a dependent source which is controlled
by an element outside the circuit of interest, the methods
outlined in superposition theorem of dependent sources
and Thevenin’s of independent sources.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

How?

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Nortons’s Dependent

SP01 Solution

As expected, the Thévenin voltage source is dependent upon the current I.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Dependent

SP01 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

Local Dependent Source

In order to determine the Thévenin or Norton equivalent
circuit of a circuit having a dependent source controlled by
a local voltage or current, the following steps must be
taken:
See example SP02

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Thevenin’s- Nortons’s Dependent

SP02

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Thevenin’s- Nortons’s Dependent

SP02 Solution

STEP 1. Remove the branch across which the Norton equivalent

circuit is to be found. Label the resulting two terminals a and b.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution
STEP 2. Calculate the open-circuit voltage (Thévenin voltage) across the
two terminals a and b.
Because the circuit contains a dependent source controlled by an
element in the circuit, the dependent source may not be set to zero.
Its effects must be considered together with the effects of any
independent source(s).

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node a gives the current
through R2 as

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution

Now, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed

loop containing the voltage source and the two resistors,
gives

Since the open-circuit voltage, Vab is the same as the voltage 102
across R2, we have
Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution
STEP 3. Determine the short-circuit current (Norton current) that would occur
between the terminals.
Once again, the dependent source may not be set to zero, but rather must
have its effects considered concurrently with the effects of any independent
source(s).

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution
STEP 4. Determine the Thévenin or Norton impedance

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP02 Solution
STEP 5. Sketch the Thévenin or Norton equivalent circuit . Ensure
that the portion of the network that was removed in Step 1 is
reinserted as part of the equivalent circuit.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

Assignment NTD 01

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

With more than one independent source

If a circuit has more than one independent source, it is

necessary to determine the open-circuit voltage and short-
circuit current due to each independent source while
simultaneously considering the effects of the dependent
source. The following example illustrates the principle.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

Step 2: In order to find the open-circuit voltage, Vab of Figure 20–47, we

may isolate the effects due to each independent source and then apply
superposition to determine the combined result.
However, by converting the current source into an equivalent voltage
source, we can determine the open-circuit voltage in one step.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

Using Voltage Divider Theorem, the controlling element (R1) has a

voltage, V, determined as Note:
No current flowing
in R3 since there is
an open between
terminal a and b.
which gives a Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage of
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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution
Once again, it is possible to determine the short-circuit current by
using superposition.
However, upon further reflection, we see that the circuit is easily
analyzed using Mesh analysis. Loop currents I1 and I2 are assigned in
clockwise directions as shown in Figure 20–50.

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

However, by examining the circuit of Figure 20–50, we see

that the controlling voltage depends on the current I1, and
is determined from Ohm’s law as
or more simply as

Now, the current I1 is found as

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which gives V = 7.0 V

Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

This gives us the Norton current source as 119

Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution

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Thevenin’s- Norton’s Dependent

SP03 Solution
The resulting Thévenin
equivalent circuit is shown in
Figure 20–51 and the Norton
equivalent circuit is shown in
Figure 20–52.

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Maximum Power Transfer

Definition
The maximum power transfer theorem is used to determine the
value of load impedance required so that the load receives the
maximum amount of power from the circuit.
Consider the Thévenin equivalent circuit shown in Figure 20–56.

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Maximum Power Transfer

Definition

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Maximum Power Transfer

Definition
Considering the impedances for maximum power transfer

This condition must be meet:

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Maximum Power Transfer

Definition
Consider only the reactance portion, X, of the load impedance
for the moment and neglect the effect of the load resistance.
It can be seen that the power dissipated by the load will be
maximum when the denominator is kept to a minimum.
If the load were to have an impedance such that jX = - jXTh,
then the power delivered to the load would be given as

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Maximum Power Transfer

Definition
For ac circuits, the maximum power transfer theorem states the
following:
Maximum power will be delivered to a load whenever the
load has an impedance which is equal to the complex
conjugate of the Thévenin (or Norton) impedance of the
equivalent circuit.
The maximum power delivered to the load may be
calculated by using Equation 20–4, which is simplified as
follows:

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Maximum Power Transfer

Definition
For a Norton equivalent circuit, the maximum power delivered
to a load is determined by substituting ETh = INZN into the
above expression as follows:

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Maximum Power Transfer

Assignment MPTT 01
Show that for maximum power transfer

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP01

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP01 Solution

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Maximum Power Transfer

Relative Maximum Power

Occasionally it is not possible to adjust the reactance portion of a
load.
In such cases, a relative maximum power will be delivered to the
load when the load resistance has a value determined as

If the reactance of the Thévenin impedance is of the same type

(both capacitive or both inductive) as the reactance in the load, then
the reactances are added.
If one reactance is capacitive and the other is inductive, however,
then the reactances are subtracted.
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Maximum Power Transfer

SP02

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP02 Solution

For the absolute maximum power to be delivered to the

load, the load impedance would need to be

The reactance of the capacitor at a frequency of 10 kHz is

determined to be

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP02 Solution
Because the capacitive reactance is not equal to the inductive
reactance of the Norton impedance, the circuit will not deliver
the absolute maximum power to the load.

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP02 Solution

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP02 Solution

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Maximum Power Transfer

SP02 Solution

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Maximum Power Transfer

Assignment MPTT 02

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Maximum Power Transfer

Assignment MPTT 02

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END

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