Power in

AC Circuits
MODULE 3
Alexander T. Montero, REE, RME
Topics
Introduction
Power to a Resistive Load
Power to an Inductive Load
Power to a Capacitive Load
Power in More Complex Circuits
Apparent Power
The Relationship Between P, Q, and S
Power Factor
AC Power Measurement
Effective Resistance
Energy Relationships for AC
Objectives
Explain what is meant by active, reactive, and apparent power
Compute the active, reactive, and apparent power to a load
Use the power triangle in analyzing power to complex loads
Computer for power factor how to correct it
Know how to measure AC power
Understand effective resistance
Understand energy relationships for AC
Introduction
Introduction
At any given instant, the power to a load is equal to the
product of voltage times current (Figure 17–1).
This means that if voltage and current vary with time, so
will power.
This time-varying power is referred to as instantaneous
power and is given the symbol p(t) or just p.
Thus,
Introduction
Introduction
In the case of sinusoidal ac, since voltage and
current are positive at various times during their
cycle and negative at others, instantaneous power
may also be positive at some times and negative at
others.
This is illustrated in Figure 17–2, where we have
multiplied voltage times current point by point to
get the power waveform.
Introduction
Introduction
A positive value for p means that power transfer is
in the direction of the reference arrow, while a
negative value means that it is in the opposite
direction.
Thus, during positive parts of the power cycle,
power flows from the source to the load, while
during negative parts, it flows out of the load
back into the circuit.
Active Power
Since p represents the power flowing to the load,
its average will be the average power, P to the
load.
If P is positive, then, on average, more power
flows to the load than is returned from it.
Thus, it represents the power that is really
dissipated by the load.
If P is zero, all power sent to the load is returned.
P is called real power and is also called active
power.
NOTE: real power, active power, and average power mean the same thing.
Reactive Power
During the intervals that p is negative, the portion of
power that flows into the load then back out is called
reactive power.
This can only happen if the load contains reactive
elements: L or C.
Since it first flows one way then the other, its average
value is zero; thus, reactive power contributes
nothing to the average power to the load.
Reactive Power
Although reactive power does no useful work, it
cannot be ignored.
Extra current is required to create reactive power,
and this current must be supplied by the source; this
also means that conductors, circuit breakers, switches,
transformers, and other equipment must be made
physically larger to handle the extra current.
This increases the cost of a system.
Power to a
RESISTIVE Load
Power to a Resistive Load
In a purely resistive load current is in phase with voltage.
Power to a Resistive Load
Power to a Resistive Load
Note that p is always positive(except where it is
momentarily zero). This means that power flows only from
the source to the load. Since none is ever returned, all
power delivered by the source is absorbed by the load.
Power to a Resistive Load
The power to a pure resistance consists of active power only.
Note also that the frequency of the power waveform is double
that of the voltage and current waveforms.
(This is confirmed by the 2ω in Equation 17–2.)
Power to a Resistive Load
Average Power
Power to a Resistive Load
Average Power

where V and I are the magnitude of the rms value of voltage

and current, respectively.)
Thus the active power relationships for resistive circuits are the same for
ac as for dc.
Power to an
INDUCTIVE Load
 Power to an Inductive Load

where V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the

voltage and current respectively.
Power to an Inductive Load
Power to an Inductive Load
During the first quarter-cycle, p is positive and hence
power flows to the inductance, while during the second
quarter-cycle, p is negative and all power transferred to
the inductance during the first quarter-cycle flows back
out.
Power to an Inductive Load
Thus, the average power to an inductance over a
full cycle is zero, i.e., there are no power losses
associated with a pure inductance.
Consequently, PL = 0 W and the only power flowing
in the circuit is reactive power.
This is true in general, that is, the power that flows
into and out of a pure inductance is reactive power
only.
Power to an Inductive Load
The product VI in Equation 17–6 is defined as
reactive power and is given the symbol QL.
Because it represents “power” that alternately
flows into, then out of the inductance, QL
contributes nothing to the average power to the
load and, as noted earlier, is sometimes referred
to as wattless power.
Power to an Inductive Load
Since QL is the product of voltage times current, its unit is
the volt-amp (VA).
To indicate that QL represents reactive volt-amps, an “R” is
appended to yield a new unit, the VAR (volt-amps
reactive). Thus,

By convention, QL is taken to be positive.

Note that the VAR (like the watt) is a scalar quantity with magnitude only
and no angle.
Power to a
Capacitive Load
Power to a Capacitive Load
The power that flows into and out of a pure capacitance
is reactive power only. This reactive power is given by

where V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the

voltage and current respectively.
Power to a Capacitive Load
Power to a Capacitive Load
Note that negative and positive loops of the power wave
are identical; thus, over a cycle, the power returned to the
circuit by the capacitance is exactly equal to that delivered
to it by the source.
This means that the average power to a capacitance over
a full cycle is zero, i.e., there are no power losses
associated with a pure capacitance.
Consequently, PC = 0 W and the only power flowing in the
circuit is reactive power.
 Power to a Capacitive Load
The product VI is defined as QC. This product represents
reactive power. That is,

By convention, reactive power to capacitance is defined as

negative.
PwrRLCEP01
PwrRLCEP01 Solution
PwrRLCEP02
Power in More
Complex Circuits
Power in Complex Circuits
In any circuit, total real power PT is found by
summing real power to all circuit elements, while
total reactive power QT is found by summing
reactive power, taking into account that inductive
Q is positive and capacitive Q is negative.
PwrCxCktEP01
PwrCxCktEP02
PwrCxCktEP03
PwrCxCktEP03
PwrCxCktEP03
PwrCxCktEP04
Apparent Power
If the load contains both resistance and reactance, this
product represents neither real power nor reactive power.
Since it appears to represent power, it is called apparent
power.
Apparent power is given the symbol S and has units of volt-
amperes (VA).Thus,
Apparent Power
For small equipment (such as found in electronics), VA is a
convenient unit.
However, for heavy power apparatus (Figure 17–12), it is too
small and kVA (kilovolt-amps) is frequently used, where
The Relationship
Between P, Q, and S

Until now, we have treated real, reactive, and apparent

power separately. However, they are related by a very
simple relationship through the power triangle.
The Power Triangle
The Power Triangle
The Power Triangle
From the geometry of this triangle, you can see that
The Power Triangle
The Power Triangle
When solving problems involving power, remember
that P values can be added to get PT, and Q values to
get QT (where Q is positive for inductiveelements and
negative for capacitive).
However, apparent power values cannot be added to
get ST, i.e., ST = S1 + S2 + … SN.
Instead, determine PT and QT, then use the power
triangle to obtain ST.
PwrTriEP01
PwrTriEP01
PwrTriEP02
PwrTriEP02
Active and Reactive Power Equations

where V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the

voltage and current respectively and θ is the angle between
them.
P is always positive, while Q is positive for inductive circuits
and negative for capacitive circuits.
PwrTriEP03
Power Factor
Power Factor
Unity, Lagging, and Leading
Power Factor
For a load containing only resistance and
inductance, the load current lags voltage. The
power factor in this case is described as lagging.
On the other hand, for a load containing only
resistance and capacitance, current leads voltage
and the power factor is described as leading.
Thus, an inductive circuit has a lagging power
factor, while a capacitive circuit has a leading
power factor.
SEATWORK03 721W
82.3 VAR
726 VA
6.15A
No
ASSIGNMENT1
ASSIGNMENT2
ASSIGNMENT3
ASSIGNMENT4
ASSIGNMENT5
Assignment6
Why Equipment Is Rated in VA
Why electrical apparatus is rated in VA instead of watts?
Consider Figure 17–18 (a). Assume that the generator is
rated at 600V, 120 kVA.
Why Equipment Is Rated in VA
This means that it is capable of supplying of current
I = 120 kVA/600V = 200 A.
The generator is supplying a purely resistive load with 120
kW. Since S = P for a purely resistive load, S = 120 kVA and
the generator is supplying its rated kVA.
Why Equipment Is Rated in VA
In (b), the generator is supplying a load with P = 120 kW as
before, but Q = 160 kVAR.
Why Equipment Is Rated in VA
Its apparent power is therefore S = 200 kVA, which means
that the generator current is I = 200 kVA/600 V = 333.3 A.

Even though it is supplying the

same power as in (a), the
generator is now greatly
overloaded, and damage may
result as indicated in (b).
Why Equipment Is Rated in VA
This example illustrates clearly that rating a load or device
in terms of power is a poor choice, as its current-carrying
capability can be greatly exceeded (even though its power
rating is not).
Thus, the size of electrical apparatus (generators,
interconnecting wires, transformers, etc.) required to
supply a load is governed, not by the load’s power
requirements, but rather by its VA requirements.
Power Factor Correction
The problem shown in Figure 17–18 can be
alleviated by cancelling some or all of the reactive
component of power by adding reactance of the
opposite type to the circuit. This is referred to as
power factor correction.
If you completely cancel the reactive component,
the power factor angle is 0° and Fp = 1. This is
referred to as unity power factor correction.
Power Factor Correction
Residential customers are charged solely on the basis of
energy used.
All residential power factors are essentially the same, and
the power factor effect is simply built into the tariff.
Industrial customers have widely different power factors,
and the electrical utility may have to take the power
factors of these customers into account.
Power Factor Correction
To illustrate, assume that the loads of Figures 17–18(a) and (b) are
two small industrial plants.
If the utility based its charge solely on power, both customers would
pay the same amount.
However, it costs the utility more to supply customer (b) since larger
conductors, larger transformers, larger switchgear, and so on are
required to handle the larger current.
For this reason, industrial customers may pay a penalty if their
power factor drops below a prescribed value.
The power triangle for the plant is shown in Figure 17–21(a).
However, we must correct the power factor to 0.85.
Thus we need ϴ’ = cos-1 (0.85) = 31.8°, where ϴ’ is the power
factor angle of the corrected load as indicated in Figure 17–
21(b).
ASSIGNMENT:
Power Factor Correction
Assignment (ans 1,2 & 4 only)

Figure 17-10 Figure 17-18b

AC Power
Measurement
AC Power Measurement
Wattmeter is used to measure power in an ac circuit (since the
product of voltage times current is not sufficient to determine ac
power.
It is a digital device that monitors voltage and current and from
these, computes and displays power.
AC Power Measurement
Instantaneous load power is the product of load voltage
times load current, and average power is the average of
this product.
One way to implement power measurement is therefore to
create a meter with
- a current sensing circuit,
- a voltage sensing circuit,
- a multiplier circuit, and
- an averaging circuit.
AC Power Measurement
 AC Power Measurement
Current is passed through its
current coil (CC) to create a
magnetic field proportional to
the current, and a sensor
circuit connected across the
load voltage reacts with this
field to produce an output
voltage proportional to the
product of instantaneous
voltage and current (i.e.,
proportional to instantaneous
power).
An averaging circuit averages this voltage and drives a display to
indicate average power.
AC Power Measurement
Figure 17–25 shows how to connect a wattmeter (whether
electronic or electromechanical) into a circuit.

Load current passes through its current coil circuit, and load
voltage is impressed across its voltage sensing circuit.
AC Power Measurement
With this connection, the wattmeter computes and
displays the product of the magnitude of the load voltage,
the magnitude of the load current, and the cosine of the
angle between them

Thus, it measures load power.

Answer
1) 3.94 x 10-9 inch
2) 1.67 x 10-21 gram
3) 2.49 x 1013 mile
4) 9.46 x 1013 meter
5) 1.49 x 1010 inch
6) 8.40 x 1010 mm3
AC Power Measurement
Note the marking on the terminals.
Connect the meter so that load current enters the
current terminal and the higher potential end of the load is
connected to the voltage terminal.
On many meters, the voltage terminal is internally
connected so that only three terminals are brought out as
in Figure 17–26.
AC Power Measurement
When power is to be measured in a low power factor
circuit, a low power factor wattmeter must be used. This is
because, for low power factor loads, currents can be very
high, even though the power is low.
Thus, you can easily exceed the current rating of a
standard wattmeter and damage it, even though the
power indication on the meter is small.
It should be noted that the wattmeter reads power only
for circuit elements on the load side of the meter. In
addition, if the load consists of several elements, it reads
the sum of the powers.
AC Power Measurement
AC Power Measurement
AC Power Measurement
Effective Resistance
Up to now, we have assumed that resistance is constant,
independent of frequency.
However, this is not entirely true.
For a number of reasons, the resistance of a circuit to ac is
greater than its resistance to dc. While this effect is small
at low frequencies, it is very pronounced at high
frequencies. AC resistance is known as effective resistance.
Effective Resistance
That is, we define ac or effective resistance as

where P is dissipated power (as determined by a

wattmeter). Anything that affects dissipated power affects
resistance. For dc and low-frequency ac, both definitions
for R, i.e., R = V/I and R = P/I2 yield the same value.
Eddy Currents
The magnetic field surrounding a coil or other circuit
carrying ac current varies with time and thus induces
voltages in nearby conductive material such as metal
equipment cabinets, transformer cores, and so on.
The resulting currents (called eddy currents because they
flow in circular patterns like eddies in a brook) are
unwanted and create power losses called eddy current
losses.
Since additional power must be supplied to make up for
these losses, P in Equation 17–25 increases, increasing the
effective resistance of the coil.
Hysteresis Effects
If ferromagnetic material is also present, an additional
power loss occurs due to hysteresis effects caused by the
magnetic field alternately magnetizing the material in one
direction, then the other.
Hysteresis and eddy current losses are important even at
low frequencies, such as the 60-Hz power system
frequency.
Skin Effect
Magnetically induced voltages created inside a conductor
by its own changing magnetic field force electrons to the
periphery of the conductor (Figure 17–28), resulting in a
nonuniform distribution of current, with current density
greatest near the periphery and smallest in the center.
This phenomenon is known as skin effect.
Skin Effect
Because the center of the wire carries little
current, its cross-sectional area has effectively
been reduced, thus increasing resistance.
While skin effect is generally negligible at
power line frequencies (except for conductors
larger than several hundred thousand circular
mils), it is so pronounced at microwave
frequencies that the center of a wire carries
almost no current. For this reason, hollow
conductors are often used instead of solid
wires, as shown in Figure 17–28(c).
Radiation Resistance
At high frequencies some of the
energy supplied to a circuit escapes
as radiated energy.
For example, a radio transmitter
supplies power to an antenna,
where it is converted into radio
waves and radiated into space. The
resistance effect here is known as
radiation resistance.
This resistance is much higher than simple dc resistance.
For example, a TV transmitting antenna may have a
resistance of a fraction of an ohm to dc but several hundred
ohms effective resistance at its operating frequency.
Energy Relationships for AC

Inductance
Energy Relationships for AC
Energy Relationships for AC
Capacitance
Energy Relationships for AC
Assignment 5
Assignment 6