CST1500

Computing Systems Architecture and

Operating Systems

Lecture 1 – Introduction and Data Representation 1

1
 Instructors
• Dr. Rand H Raheem
– Office: TG17
– Email: [email protected]

• Mr. Alex Ali

- Email: [email protected]

2
 Course Goals
• Understand the fundamentals of computer hardware
and architecture

• Understand the fundamentals of operating systems

3
 Textbooks
• Textbook for computer architecture
 W Stallings, (2016), Computer Organization and Architecture
(10th Edition), Prentice Hall. (Essential)

• Textbook for operating systems

 A Silberschatz, P B Galvin and G Gagne, (2018), Operating
System Concepts (10th Edition), ISBN 978-1-118-06333-0,
John Wiley & Sons. (Essential)

4
 Class Details
• 1h Lecture & 2h Lab sessions per week
1H 2H 1H 2H 1H 2H 1H 2H 1H 2H
Lecture Lab Lecture Lab Lecture Lab Lecture Lab Lecture Lab

1st WEEK 2nd WEEK 3rd WEEK 23th WEEK 24th WEEK

• Home page for the course includes all

– Module Handbook
– Lecture notes
– Labs
– Other resources

• Consultation times
– Office Hours: Email your module leader
5
 Assessment

Three (3) class tests (10% + 10% + 10% = 30%)

• Week 8, 14 and 22

SOBs (40%)
• Every week

Three(3) projects (10% + 10% + 10% = 30%)

• Week 9, 15 and 23

6
 What is Computer
Architecture?
• The study of the computer hardware

• Why study computer architecture?

• To understand what computer really is
• What is inside a computer
• Why a computer is designed
• Understand the assembly language programming
• Optimize programs written in high level languages
• To understand the components that make up the computer
and the way they are interconnected
• Be aware of the advancements in computer architecture
• To understand what our programs mean

7
 Outline for Computer
Architecture
• Data representation
• Introduction to digital logic
• Combinatorial & sequential logic design
• Overview of a computer and CPU
• Instruction sets and addressing modes
• Machine, Assembly and high level programming
• Primary and secondary storage
• Control unit and microprogramming
• More computer architecture
• Input-Output
8
 Overview of Data
Representation
• What is data? Data - a fact (information)
• Bits, bytes, words
• Characters
• Integers
• Binary, octal, hexdecimal notation
• Conversions between binary, octal, hex, decimal
• Representation of negative numbers
• Binary addition and subtraction
• Representation of real numbers

9
 How is Data Represented In a
Computer?
• The digital computer is binary

• Everything is stored in one of two states: true, or false

– which can be thought of as 1 and 0
– or a switch which is on or off (voltage, no voltage)

or

• An instance of a state is called a bit (binary digit)

10
How is Data Represented In a
Computer?
• Values are represented as sequences bits: 1000001

• What does this particular sequence mean?

• How does the computer know what any particular

sequence of bits means?

11
How is Data Represented in a
Computer?
• It depends on how you interpret it:
– 65 (in decimal)
– ‘A’ (in ASCII)
– Or anything else you want it to mean!

• The computer doesn’t know – you know

12
 Computer Memory
• The data currently being worked on is (normally) stored in
the computer's memory

• Memory is just like the switchboard in your home, each

switch has a number. They’re all there all the time and
each has a state (on or off). You change the state by
flipping the switch.

• In the computer each data item has:

– an address or location (the switch number)
– a value (the state)

• In high level languages we name some of the locations

13
 Bits, Nybbles, Bytes
• The smallest unit of storage is the bit (1 or 0)

• For convenience bits are grouped together into larger

units. A nybble (nibble, or nyble) is 4 consecutive
bits. Its just like a box drawn on the switchboard

• A byte is 8 consecutive bits (2 nybles)

• For convenience it is bytes that are given addresses

in the (modern) computer (bits and nybbles are too
small to work with most of the time).
14
Bits, Nybbles, Bytes
1 bit = 1 switch

1 nybble = 4 switches

1 byte = 8 switches

7 6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 15

1
 A Word of Memory
• The word is the number of bits the CPU uses
internally. It varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer and from CPU to CPU. These
days it is usually 32 or 64 bits.

• Bits Computer
– 8 Atari 800, Commodore 64, Apple ][ IBM PC
– 16 XT, Macintosh, DEC VAX DEC PDP 15
– 18 IBM 370, early Android and iOS phones
– 32 Honeywell, UNIVAC
– 36 Cray-1, iMac, PC, and modern
16
– 64 smartphones
 Characters
• A character (char ch;) is a written symbol. They
are (for English) represented as a single byte. In
other languages they can be represented as 2 bytes
(or more).

• Characters include:
– UPPER CASE LETTERS AC X...
– lower case letters b g k
– Single digits ...
– Special characters 3 1 9
...
! in<sequences
• We can join these together = to make
...
(human readable) numbers and words
17
 ASCII Character Code
• How does the computer know that ch is an 'A' and not 'a' or '3' or anything
else? It doesn’t!

1.The computer uses ch as an integer index into a pre-existing table, e.g.

0001000000101000010001001000001010000010111111101000001010000010

• Or, for clarity, an array of bytes like this:

unsigned char bits[65] = {16, 40, 68, 130, 130, 254, 130, 130}

2. The computer screen is made up of thousands of little dots called pixels.

They are in a rectangular grid, like a table.

18
 ASCII Character Code
0001000000101000010001001000001010000010111111101000001010000010

00010000 00101000 01000100 10000010 10000010 11111110 10000010 10000010

When the computer is asked to “print” a character it turns on

and off some of those pixels. We then interpret the drawing.
We have imposed meaning: We have given it a value
19
 ASCII Character Code
• There are several standard tables that describe what to draw, and fonts
that describe how to draw them.
• ASCII (the American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
describes what should be drawn for Roman (English-like) alphabets.
– For
example:
A 1000001 (65)
a 1100001 (97)
9 0111001 (57)

• But there are only a few letters, numbers, and punctuation marks. The
remanning ASCII codes are non-printing and have other meaning (such
as line feed, form feed, tab, etc.).

20
ASCII Character Code (cont)
 ASCII Character Code (cont)
• ASCII characters are represented by a 7-bit code.
• E.g. letter ‘A’ = 65 = 1000001

• There are, therefore, 128 (27) possible characters.

They are usually stored in memory as a byte with the
8th bit set to 0.

• For sorting purposes characters are compared on

their numeric value (called the collating sequence).
‘A’ is before ‘Z’ but ‘a’ is after ‘Z’!

22
 Other Character Codes
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code. Used with large (old) IBM computers.

BAUDOT An old paper tape code

BCD Binary coded decimal. 6-bits +

check bit.
Used on some magnetic tapes.

80 column 12-bit code used on punch-cards.

23
EBCDIC

BAUDOT

80 column
BCD
 Unicode
• What about all the non-Roman characters?
– Greek, Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Japanese, Thai, etc.
• What about characters that represent ideas, concepts,
phrases?
– Emoji, etc.
• Unicode
– Developed by The Unicode Consortium
– Coordinated with ISO/IEC 10646
• Originally a 16-bit code (compatible with ASCII)
– Mapped 16-bit values into glyphs (characters)
– 65,536 characters were possible
• Now a 21-bit code with 136,690 characters from 139 scripts
– Some (many) are reserved

25
Unicode (cont)

http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U11D00.pdf
26
 Character Strings
• Think of this….
– How are character strings (e.g. “hello world”) stored in a
computer?

27
 Summary
• Your machine speaks different language than yours. It is zeros
and ones (Binary)

• The OS works as an interface and allows you to interact with your

computer.

• The OS with the Hardware form a complete system and

determine what your computer can do

• Without the OS, your machine is useless

• ASCII is used to represent both textual data (letters, numbers,

and punctuation marks) and noninput-device commands (control
characters).