Chapter 3

Reference Models for Computer

Networks
OSI Model
OSI Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a
reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer
moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.

 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer

performs a particular network function.

 OSImodel was developed by the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984.
Note

ISO is the organization;

OSI is the model.
The OSI Model
Interlayer Communication

• Network communication is the process of sending

message from one computer to another.

• For this Protocol Stack is used.

• Protocol Stack defines the basic components

needed for transmission of messages to their
destination.
Interlayer Communication

• Network communication is the process of sending

message from one computer to another.

• For this Protocol Stack is used.

• Protocol Stack defines the basic components

needed for transmission of messages to their
destination.
Data Encapsulation
• Data Encapsulation is the process of adding
Header and Footer to the data.

M Layer 5

H M Layer 4

Where M : Message
H : Header
Peer to Peer Process

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9

Interfaces between Layers
Organization of the Layers
Functions of Layers
Physical Layer
1) Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is responsible for

movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.
Functions
1) Physical characteristics of interfaces and
medium.
The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission
medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.

2) Representation of bits.
The Physical Layer data consists of a stream of bits
(i.e sequence of 0s or 1s).
3) Data Rate (Transmission Rate).
The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each
second-is also defined by the physical layer.

4) Synchronization of bits.

The sender and receiver not only must use the same
bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level.
In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.
Note

The unit of communication at the Physical

Layer is a Bit
Data Link Layer
2) Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next.
Functions
1) Framing.
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
2) Physical Addressing
A header to the frame to define the sender and
receiver of the frame.

3) Flow Control
Flow Control deals with the speed of sender to match
that of the receiver.

4) Error Control
The data link layer adds reliability to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames.
5) Access Control

When two or more devices are connected to the

same link, data link layer protocols are necessary
to determine which device has control over the link
at any given time.
Note

The unit of communication at the Data Link

Layer is a Frame.
 Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame
 packet packet
discarded discarded
1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

2 3
4
Network Layer
3) Network Layer

The Network Layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
Functions
1) Logical Addressing
The physical addressing implemented by the data link
layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a
packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems.

2) Routing
Routers or Switches are responsible for routing
packets to their final destination.
Note

The unit of communication at the Network

Layer is a Packet.
 Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram
 20 10 A P Data 20 10 A P Data 33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

95 66 A P Data 95 66 A P Data
33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed
Transport Layer
From Session Layer To Session Layer
4) Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is responsible for the

delivery of a message from one process to
another.
Functions
1) Port Addressing
It deals with process to process delivery for that it
needs port address, so that the message reaches
correct port no.

2) Segmentation & Reassembly

A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number.
These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that
were lost in transmission.
3) Connection Control
The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented.

A Connectionless Transport Layer treats each

segment as an independent packet and delivers it to
the transport layer at the destination machine.

A Connection Oriented Transport Layer makes a

connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets. After all
the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
4) Flow Control
Synchronizes speed of sender and receiver.

5) Error Control
Error Control is performed end to end in this layer
to ensure that the complete message arrives at the
receiving transport layer without any error.
Error Correction is done through retransmission.
Note

The unit of communication at the Transport

Layer is a Segment.
 A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment
Session Layer
5) Session Layer

The Session Layer is responsible for

dialog control and synchronization.
Functions
1) Dialog Control
It maintains, establish conversation between two processes
using half or full duplex mode known as dialog control.

2) Synchronization
It helps in synchronization of data from sender and
receiver end.
It adds synchronization points or checkpoints in data
streams for long communications. This ensures that data
streams up to the checkpoints are successfully received
and acknowledged. In case of any failures, only the
streams after the checkpoints have to be re-transmitted.
Note

The unit of communication at the Session

Layer is a Data.
Presentation Layer
6) Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer is responsible for

translation , compression, and encryption.
Functions
1) Translation
The translation between the sender’s and receivers
message format is done by the presentation layer.

2) Encryption
The presentation layer performs data Encryption and
Decryption.

3) Compression
The presentation layer performs data Compression
before sending and decompression at the destination.
Note

The unit of communication at the

Presentation Layer is a Data.
Application Layer
7) Application Layer

The Application Layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Functions
1) Mail Services
Email forwarding and storage.

2) File Transfer and Access

This application allows a user to access files in
remote host, to retrieve files from remote host and
to manage or control files in remote computer
locally.
3) Remote Log-in
A user can log into a remote computer and access the
resources of that computer.

4) Accessing the World Wide Web

The most common application is the access of the
World Wide Web (WWW).
Note

The unit of communication at the

Presentation Layer is a Data.
 A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
Summary of OSI Layers
TCP / IP Model
Introduction
TCP/IP is a short form of Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

The TCP/IP model is sometimes called the

DoD model because TCP/IP was
developed in connection with the
ARPANET project of the U.S. Department
of Defense in the 1970s and 1980s.
TCP/IP is a set of standardized rules that allow
computers to communicate on a network such
as the internet.

 TCP/IP is a routable protocol that is suitable

for connecting dissimilar systems (such as
Microsoft Windows and UNIX) in
heterogeneous networks, and it is the protocol
of the worldwide network known as the
Internet.

The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the

application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
TCP / IP Reference Model
Functions of Layers
1) Host-to-Network Layer
This is the lowest layer in TCP/IP
Reference Model.

 The host has to connect to the network

using some protocol, so that it can send
the IP packet over it.

 This protocol varies from host to host

and network to network.
2) Internet
An internet layer is the second layer of the
TCP/IP model. An internet layer is also
known as the network layer.

The main responsibility of the internet layer

is to send the packets from any network, and
they arrive at the destination irrespective of
the route they take.

 The internet layer defines a packet format

and a protocol called Internet Protocol(IP).
3) Transport Layer
This is the layer above internet layer. Its
functions are same as those of a transport
layer in OSI model.

The transport layer is responsible for the

reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport

layer are User Datagram protocol(UDP)
and Transmission control protocol(TCP)
4) Application Layer
An application layer is the topmost layer in
the TCP/IP model.
It is responsible for handling high-level
protocols, issues of representation.
This layer allows the user to interact with
the application.
When one application layer protocol wants
to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport
layer.
TCP/IP Layers & Protocols
Application Layer TELNET , FTP , SMTP , DNS ,
HTTP , NNTP
Transport Layer TCP , UDP

Internet IP

Host-to-Network ARPANET , SATNET , LAN ,

Layer Packet Radio
 OSI Model TCP/IP Model
It is developed by ISO (International It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Standard Organization) Research Project Agency Network).

TCP/IP doesn't have any clear distinguishing

OSI model provides a clear distinction
points between services, interfaces, and
between interfaces, services, and protocols.
protocols.

OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI uses the network layer to define routing

TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.
In the OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.

In the OSI model, the data link layer and In TCP, physical and data link are both
physical are separate layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.

Session and presentation layers are a part of There is no session and presentation layer in
the OSI model. the TCP model.

It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of the internet.

The minimum size of the OSI header is 5

The minimum header size is 20 bytes.
bytes.