The Digestive

System

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Overview of Digestion
Digestion obtains nutrients from food to use in the body for
energy and raw building materials, and then defecates the
leftover waste

Mechanical digestion takes place

in the mouth and stomach

Chemical digestion takes place

anywhere in the digestive tract
where enzymes and other
digestive chemicals are found

Digestion is a two part process

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Overview of Digestion
There are two groups of organs involved

The Gastrointestinal Tract which

is a long muscular tube running
from the mouth to the anus
through which food passes

The tract includes the mouth,

pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, and large intestine

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Overview of Digestion
There are two groups of organs involved

The Accessory Organs which do not

have food passing through them

These include the teeth, tongue,

salivary glands, liver, gall
bladder, and pancreas

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Overview of Digestion
Major functions of the digestive system

Ingesting food

Digesting it into small molecules

which can cross cell membranes

Moving contents along the tract

Absorbing nutrient molecules

Eliminating indigestible wastes

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Overview of Digestion
There are four major layers that make up the wall of the
GI tract

The serosa is actually part of the body membrane

called the peritoneum
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The Digestive System
The Mouth

Tonsils at the back of the mouth and

hard palate other lymphatic tissue help fight disease

soft palate
uvula

The tongue is covered in taste buds,

assists in the mechanical breakdown of
food, forms a bolus, and moves the bolus
toward the pharynx

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The Digestive System
The Mouth

3 pairs of Salivary glands secrete

salivary amylase that begins
carbohydrate digestion

Also secrete about 1 liter

of saliva (water and mucous)
each day some of which is
used by the tongue to form
the bolus

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The Digestive System
The Mouth

Teeth begin the mechanical

breakdown of food (32 in
adults, 20 in young children)

A hard covering called

enamel and dentin covers the
crown containing an inner
pulp cavity with nerves and
blood vessels

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The Digestive System
A cavity (throat) between the mouth
The Pharynx and the esophagus that serves as a
passageway for food and air

A long muscular tube that carries

The Esophagus food to the stomach

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The Digestive System
Once the tongue has pushed the bolus
Swallowing into the pharynx, a reflex action
safely moves it to the esophagus

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The Digestive System
Once the bolus is in the esophagus,
Peristalsis waves of rhythmic contractions propel
it toward the stomach

peristaltic
wave

Lower gastroesophageal
spincter relaxes and stomach
food enters stomach.
Swallowing Video

The upper esophageal sphincter muscle prevents the bolus

from pushing back into the pharynx while the lower one
prevents stomach contents from returning to the esophagus
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The Digestive System
Happens when the acid from the stomach
Heartburn pass up into the esophagus and create a
burning sensation (acid reflux)

Triggers include chocolate and

mint which relax the lower
esophageal sphincter

Substances like coffee and beer

increase the amount of stomach
acid which can back-up

Physical pressure like bending

over can force the stomach
contents up

Chronic heartburn is called gastroesophageal reflux disease

(GERD)
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The Digestive System
Functions to store food, start digestion of
The Stomach proteins, and move its contents (chyme)
into the small intestine

The three layers of muscle help to create the churning of

mechanical digestion

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The Digestive System
The mucosa layer has deep folds called
The Stomach rugae and gastric pits that lead into
gastric glands which secrete gastric juice

Gastric juice contains pepsin (an enzyme that breaks down

protein), HCl (lowers pH to 2 which activates pepsin, kills
bacteria, and breaks down proteins and lipids), and mucus
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The Digestive System
No real nutrient absorption happens in the
The Stomach stomach, but alcohol, aspirin, and other
lipid-soluble drugs are absorbed here

Peristalsis moves
the chyme into
the small
intestines after
2-6 hours

Stomach acid deactivates salivary amylase, so carb

digestion stops until the thick, soupy mass (chyme)
reaches the small intestine
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The Digestive System
Form when HCl penetrates the
Gastric Ulcers protective mucus barrier and
disintegrates stomach wall tissue

Recently discovered that a bacteria (Helicobacter pylori)

live in the stomach and inhibit mucus production thereby
creating the opportunity for the acid’s effect
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The Digestive System
Performs mechanical and chemical digestion
The Small of food, absorbs nutrients, and transports
Intestine undigested material to large intestine

Duodenum is focused on the

chemical breakdown of food

It receives bile from the gall

bladder to emulsify or
disperse the fats in water

Averages 18 feet in length

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The Digestive System
Performs mechanical and chemical digestion
The Small of food, absorbs nutrients, and transports
Intestine undigested material to large intestine

It receives digestive enzymes

from the pancreas to
breakdown food

It receives sodium
bicarbonate from the
pancreas to neutralize the
acidic chyme from the
stomach

Averages 18 feet in length

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The Digestive System
Performs mechanical and chemical digestion
The Small of food, absorbs nutrients, and transports
Intestine undigested material to large intestine

The jejunum is focused on the

absorption of digested food

The ileum has a lot of

lymphatic tissue and is focused
on fighting bacteria from the
large intestines

The ileocecal valve is between

the small and large intestines

Averages 18 feet in length

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The Digestive System
Digested food is absorbed through the
The Small large surface area created by the villi
Intestine and microvilli

If the surface was flattened out, it would be about the

size of a football field
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The Digestive System
Sugars broken down from carbs and amino
The Small acids broken down from proteins enter into
Intestine the blood capillaries in the villi
carbohydrate
protein

pancreatic amylase
trypsin
peptides
maltase
cell of peptidase
intestinal glucose
villus
amino acids

pH = basic
pH = basic

blood capillary blood capillary

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The Digestive System
The Small Fatty acids and glycerol enter into the
Intestine lymphatic vessel (lacteal) in the villi

+
bile salts fat globules

emulsification
droplets
lipase
monoglycerides
and free
fatty acids

pH = basic chylomicron

lymphatic
capillary

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The Digestive System
The Small
The major digestive enzymes
Intestine

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The Digestive System
Fished-shaped spongy organ located
The Pancreas behind the stomach

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The Digestive System
It is a mixed gland with both exocrine
The Pancreas and endocrine parts

The exocrine part secretes enzymes into the small intestine in the
pancreatic juice

Trypsin digests proteins

Lipases digests fats

Pancreatic amylases digests

carbohydrates

Nucleases digests RNA and DNA

The pancreatic juice also contains bicarbonate which is a

buffer that neutralizes stomach acid
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The Digestive System
It is a mixed gland with both exocrine
The Pancreas and endocrine parts

The endocrine part

secretes the hormones
insulin and glucagon into
the blood stream

These hormones regulate

blood glucose levels

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The Digestive System
It stores and concentrates bile made
The Gallbladder in the liver, and releases the bile via
bile ducts into the duodenum
Gallstones form when
the liquid bile hardens

In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify fats breaking

them into small droplets for easier enzyme digestion
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The Digestive System
Large metabolic organ the lies under
The Liver the diaphragm and is made of
100,000 lobules

Filters blood from the GI tract removing

poisons and detoxifying it

Removes iron, vitamins A, D, E, K, and

B12 from the blood and stores them

Stores glucose as glycogen and breaks it

down to help retain blood glucose levels

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The Digestive System
Large metabolic organ the lies under
The Liver the diaphragm and is made of
100,000 lobules

Makes plasma proteins involved in blood

clotting

Helps regulate cholesterol levels by

making bile salts for the gallbladder

Breaks down old red blood cells and

hemoglobin (makes bilirubin in bile)

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The Digestive System
Large metabolic organ the lies under
The Liver the diaphragm and is made of
100,000 lobules

The hepatic
portal vein brings
blood from the
capillaries of the
small intestines
to the capillaries
of the liver
lobules

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The Digestive System
The Liver Liver disorders

Cirrhosis is when the liver tissue

becomes fatty which is eventually
replaced by fibrous scar tissue

Seen in alcoholism and obesity

Can lead to liver failure because

the liver cannot regenerate as
fast as it is being damaged

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The Digestive System
The Liver Liver disorders

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver caused by either

hepatitis A, B, or C virus

This can lead to liver damage, cancer, and/or death

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The Digestive System
Regulation of Digestive Secretions

The sight and smell

of food causes the
nervous system to
automatically
stimulate gastric
secretion

Secretion of digestive juices is promoted by the

nervous system
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The Digestive System
Regulation of Digestive Secretions

The stomach filled with a high

protein meal produces gastrin

Gastrin travels via the

bloodstream to stimulate gastric
gland secretion in stomach wall

This releases pepsin to digest

the protein

Secretion of digestive juices is promoted by

digestive hormones

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The Digestive System
Regulation of Digestive Secretions

The acidity of the chyme entering

the duodenum stimulates its wall
cells to produce secretin

Secretin travels via the

bloodstream to the pancreas

It stimulates the release of

pancreatic juice which contains
bicarbonate to neutralize the acid

Secretion of digestive juices is promoted by

digestive hormones

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The Digestive System
Regulation of Digestive Secretions

Partially digested protein and fat

entering the duodenum stimulates
its wall cells to produce CCK
(cholecytokinin)

CCK travels via the bloodstream

to the pancreas to cause the
release of digestive enzymes

CCK also stimulates the release of

bile from the gallbladder to help
in fat digestion

Secretion of digestive juices is promoted by

digestive hormones

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The Digestive System
Absorbs water, absorbs vitamins made by
The Large
bacteria, forms and rids the body of feces
Intestine through the anus

The cecum is a blind end of the

large intestine with a projection
called the appendix which may
fight infections

The colon absorbs water from the

indigestible waste then packs the
waste into bundles of feces

The feces also contain sloughed

off cells from the lining and
bacteria (30% of weight)

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The Digestive System
Absorbs water, absorbs vitamins made by
The Large
bacteria, forms and rids the body of feces
Intestine through the anus

The bacteria produce vitamin B12

and K which is absorbed through
colon wall

The bacteria break down amino

acids and release nitrogen
(gives odor)

The bacteria feast on indigestible

carb fibers releasing gas

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The Digestive System
Absorbs water, absorbs vitamins made by
The Large
bacteria, forms and rids the body of feces
Intestine through the anus

When the bacteria have finished,

the feces passes through the
rectum and out the anus

Digestion of one meal may take

longer than a day to complete

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The Digestive System
Disorders of the Colon and Rectum

Diarrhea is due to increased peristalsis

and unabsorbed water from either an
infection or nervous stimulation

Constipation may be caused by a lack of

fiber or water leading to dry hard feces

Hemorrhoids are enlarged inflamed blood

vessels in the anus possibly due to chronic
constipation, pregnancy, or aging

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The Digestive System
Disorders of the Colon and Rectum

Irritable bowel syndrome is due to the uncoordinated contractions

of the muscularis resulting in chronic diarrhea and abdominal pain

Diverticulosis involves infected

pouches of the mucosa
protruding through weak spots
in the muscularis layer

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The Digestive System
Disorders of the Colon and Rectum

Inflammatory bowel disease (colitis) is a group of inflammatory

disorders such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease

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The Digestive System
Disorders of the Colon and Rectum

Polyps and cancer involve small growths found in the epithelial lining
that can be either benign or cancerous

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