Dayananda Sagar University Bangalore

Department of Computer Science

Computer Networks (19CS3602)
By
Prof. Pooja
Assistant Professor, CSE, DSU
Module 1
Overview of the Internet:
Protocol, Layering Scenario, TCP/IP Protocol Suite:
The OSI Model, Internet history standards and
administration; Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP reference
model.
Physical layer : Introduction to Guided transmission media
and wireless transmission media. Transmission mode,
Classification of networks. Parallel & Serial Transmissions,
Analog & Digital Signals, Periodic & Aperiodic signals.
Encoding Schemes. RS-233C Protocol.
Data link layer: Design issues, CRC codes, Elementary Data
Link Layer Protocols, stop & wait, sliding window, go-back-
N protocols.
Resource Sharing:
Imp point to note about a CN is its mainly used for
resource sharing:

• There are 4 computers here, if all 4 computers wants a

printer, it’s definitely not an ideal solution to purchase
4 printers for all computers.
• I have brought in a printer & connected this printer to
my network or switch.
• Now all these 4 computers can use this printer.
• So thus network save a lot of infrastructure cost as
well.
Ex: if we have a CN & if there is a problem inside a CN but still the CN should work
even after failures & there should be no loss of service.
Ex: if we want to send any message from wireless router to destination intermediary
devices like from Router 1 to Router 3 and Router 5 to destination, if Router 1 some
failure comes then we will choose the next path that is form R2 , R4 to R5 and
destination. Even though the failure the message is reaching to the destination. This is
called as fault tolerance.
EX: if there are 10 computers in a network and if again 10 computers are added to the
network, this network should work as like the same even after adding there 10
computers.
EX: If a router receives 2 data at a time and this should know to which data it should
process 1st this is what we call as set priorities.
1 is the email traffic another is the VOIP traffic that is the real time communication.
Router1 will process VOIP request first because it is real time communication, in real
time communication delays are not accepted where as delays are not a problem for
email communication.
Protocol: Set of rules or procedures for transmitting data between electronic devices
such as computers.
Response Time: sender is sending the data & the receiver has to ACK the data, when
the ACK is sent back to the sender, the sender can understand that the data is received
by the receiver.
Ex: This sender is going to send the data to exactly one receiver in the network.
If the sender sends the data to set of receivers, but not to all, then this is multicasting.
Sender sends the data to all the participants in the network.
PROTOCOL LAYERING
 Protocol defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and
all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate
effectively.
 When communication is simple- one simple protocol
 When the communication is complex-need to divide the task
between different layers, in which case we need a protocol at
each layer, or protocol layering.
Scenarios
 Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for
protocol layering.
First scenario
 communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer.
 Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of
common ideas.
 Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in
one layer, face to face, in the same language, as shown in
Fig2.1.
Even in this simple scenario, we can see that a set of rules needs to be
followed.
1. Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when
they
meet.
2. They know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of
their friendship.
3. Each party knows that she should refrain from speaking when the
other party is speaking.
4. Each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog, not a
monolog: both should have the opportunity to talk about the issue.
5. They should exchange some nice words when they leave.

2.4
2
Second
Scenario
 Assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company,
but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from
Maria.
 The two friends still want to continue their communication and
exchange ideas because they have come up with an innovative project
to start a new business when they both retire.
 They decide to continue their conversation using regular mail through
the post office.
 They do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people
if the letters are intercepted. They agree on an
encryption/decryption technique.
 The sender of the letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by
anintruder ;
the receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original letter.
 Now we can say that the communication between Maria and Ann
takes place in three layers, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Let us assume that Maria sends the first letter to
Ann. At Maria s side:
• Maria talks to the machine at the third layer as
though the machine is
Ann and is listening to her.
• The third layer machine listens to what Maria says and creates
the plaintext (a letter in English), which is passed to the second
layer machine.
• The second layer machine takes the plaintext, encrypts it, and
creates the ciphertext, which is passed to the first layer machine.
• The first layer machine, presumably a robot, takes the ciphertext ,
puts it in an envelope, adds the sender and receiver addresses,
and mails it.
At Ann’s side
• The first layer machine picks up the letter from Ann’s mail box,
recognizing the letter from Maria by the sender address.
• The machine takes out the ciphertext from the envelope and
delivers it
to the second layer machine.
• The second layer machine decrypts the message, creates
the plaintext, and passes the plaintext to the third-layer
machine.
• The third layer machine takes the plaintext and reads it as
though
Maria is speaking.
 Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into
 For example, in Figure 2.2, we could have used only one machine to
do the job of all three machines. However, if Maria and Ann decide
that the encryption/ decryption done by the machine is not enough
to protect their secrecy, they would have to change the whole
machine.
 In the present situation, they need to change only the second
layer machine; the other two can remain the same. This is
referred to as modularity.
 Modularity in this case means independent layers.
 A layer (module) can be defined as a black box with inputs and
outputs, without concern about how inputs are changed to outputs.
 If two machines provide the same outputs when given the same
inputs,
they can replace each other.
 For example, Ann and Maria can buy the second layer machine
from two different manufacturers. As long as the two machines
create the same ciphertext from the same plaintext and vice
versa, they do the job.
Advantages of protocol layering
 Allows to separate the services from the implementation.
• A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services from
the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer; we
don’t care about how the layer is implemented.
• For example, Maria may decide not to buy the machine
(robot) for the first layer; she can do the job herself. As long as
Maria can do the tasks provided by the first layer, in both
directions, the communication system works.
 Reduces the complexity at the intermediate system
• Communication does not always use only two end systems; there are
intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers.
• If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to make each
intermediate system as complex as the end systems, which makes
the whole system more expensive.

Two principles of protocol layering

First Principle
 The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional
communication, we
need to make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite
tasks,
one in each direction.
 For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk
(in
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is
that the two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.
 For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a
plaintext letter. The object under layer 2 at both sites should be
a ciphertext letter. The object under layer 1 at both sites should
be a piece of mail.
Logical Connections
 Two protocols at the same layer can have a logical Connection
 This means that we have layer-to-layer communication.
Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical (imaginary) connection at
each layer through which they can send the object created from that
layer.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL
SUITE
 TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a protocol
suite used in the Internet today.
 It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of
 which
The termprovides a specific means
hierarchical functionality.
that each upper level protocol
supporte is
d by the services provided by one or more lower
protocols. level
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers
built upon the hardware.
 Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model. Figure 2.4
shows both configurations.
Layered
Architecture
 To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in
communication between two hosts, we assume that we want to use
the suite in a small internet made up of three LANs (links), each with
a link- layer switch.
 Link-layer it operates only on the local network segment (link).
 We also assume that the links are connected by one router
 Let us assume that computer A communicates with computer B.
 As the figure shows, we have five communicating devices in this
communication:
1.source host(computer A)
2.The link-layer switch in link 1
3. The router
4.The link-layer switch in link 2,
5. destination host (computer B).
 Each device is involved with a set of layers depending on the role of
the
device in the internet.
 The two hosts are involved in all five layers
 The source host needs to create a message in the application
layer and send it down the layers so that it is physically sent to the
destination host.
 The destination host needs to receive the communication at
the physical layer and then deliver it through the other layers
to the application layer.
 The router is involved in only three layers; link-layer switch in a link is
involved only in two layers, data-link and physical.
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 To better understand the duties of each layer, we need to think about
the logical connections between layers.
 The duty of the application, transport, and network layers is end-to-
end.
 The duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in which a
hop is a host or router.
 The domain of duty of the top three layers is the internet, and the
domain of duty of the two lower layers is the link.
 Another way of thinking of the logical connections is to think about
the
data unit created from each layer.
 In the top three layers, the data unit (packets) should not be changed
by any router or link-layer switch.
 In the bottom two layers, the packet created by the host is changed
only by the routers, not by the link-layer switches.
 Figure 2.7 shows the second principle the identical objects at each
layer related to each device.
 Although the logical connection at the network layer is between the
two hosts, we can only say that identical objects exist between two
hops in this case because a router may take small pieces of the packet
at the network layer and send more packets than Received.
 The link between two hops does not change the
object.
Description of Each
Layer
Physical Layer
 The lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite, responsible for
carrying individual bits in a frame across the link
 Two devices are connected by a transmission medium (cable or
air).
 The transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or
optical signals (copper cable). So the bits received in a frame from the
data-link layer are transformed and sent through the transmission
media
Data-link
Layer
 Responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
 Datagram : data transmitted in a network is divided into smaller
parts called Datagrams.
 Internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs) connected by
routers. There may be several overlapping sets of links that a
datagram can travel from the host to the destination.
 The routers are responsible for choosing the best links.when the
next link to travel is determined by the router, the data-link layer is
responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
 The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a
wired WAN, or a wireless WAN.
 TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data-link layer. It
supports all the standard protocols.
 The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates (adding
additional information) it in a packet called a frame.
 Each link-layer protocol may provide a different service. Some link-
layer protocols provide complete error detection and correction,
some provide only error correction
Network Layer
 responsible for creating a connection between the source computer
and the destination computer.
 responsible for host-to-host communication and routing the
packet
through possible routes.
 The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol, Internet
Protocol (IP),
• defines the format of the packet, called a datagram
at the
network layer.
• defines the format and the structure of addresses used in this
layer.
• responsible for routing a packet from its source to its
destination, which is achieved by each router forwarding the
datagram to the next router in its path.
 IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow control, no error
control, and no congestion control services. This means that if any of
theses services is required for an application, the application should
 The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one) and
multicast
(one-to-many) routing protocols.
 A routing protocol does not take part in but it creates forwarding
tables
for routers to help them in the routing process.
 The network layer also has some additional protocols that help IP in
its
delivery and routing tasks.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)- helps IP to report
some problems when routing a packet.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)-helps IP in
multitasking. That allows several devices to share one IP address
so they can all receive the same data.
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)-helps IP to get
the network-layer address for a host.
• The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)- helps IP to find the link-
Transport Layer
 Responsible for giving services to the application layer: to get a
message from an application program running on the source host
encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (called a segment or a
user datagram) and deliver it to the corresponding application
program on the destination host through the logical connection
 The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end.
 There are a few transport-layer protocols in the Internet, each
designed for some specific task.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• connection-oriented protocol that first establishes
a logical connection between transport layers at two
hosts before transferring data.
• creates a logical pipe between two TCPs for transferring a
stream
of bytes.
 • provides flow control, error control and congestion contro
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) l
• connectionless protocol that transmits user datagrams
without first
creating a logical connection
• each user datagram is an independent entity without being related to
the previous or the next one
• does not provide flow, error, or congestion control
• simplicity, which means small overhead, is attractive to an
application program that needs to send short messages and cannot
afford the retransmission of the packets involved in TCP, when a
packet is corrupted or lost.
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
• designed to respond to new applications that are
emerging in the
multimedia.
Application
Layer
 The logical connection between the two application layers is end
to-
end.
 The two application layers exchange messages between each other
as though there were a bridge between the two layers.
 Communication at the application layer is between two processes
(two programs running at this layer).
 To communicate, a process sends a request to the other process
and receives a response.
 Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application
layer.
 The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined
protocols, but a user can also create a pair of processes to be run
at the two hosts.
 The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) : accessing the World Wide
Web (WWW).
 The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): e-mail service.
 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP): File Transfer.
 The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH):
Remote
login
 The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): to manage the
Internet at global and local levels.
 The Domain Name System (DNS): to find the network-layer address of
a computer.
 The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): to
collect membership in a group.
Encapsulation and
Decapsulation
Encapsulation at the Source
Host
1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as
a message. It does not contain header or trailer and message is
passed to transport layer.
2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load
that the transport layer should take care of. It adds the transport
layer header to the payload, which contains the identifiers of the
source and destination application programs plus some more
information that is needed for the end-to end delivery of the
message, such as information needed for flow, error control, or
congestion control. The result is the transport-layer packet, which
is called the segment(in TCP) and the user datagram (in UDP). The
transport layer then passes the packet to the network layer.
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or
payload and adds its own header to the payload. The header
contains the addresses of the source and destination hosts and
some more information used for error checking of the header,
fragmentation information, and so on. The result is the network-
layer packet, called a datagram. The network layer then passes the
packet to the data-link layer.
4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or
payload and adds its own header, which contains the link-layer
addresses of the host or the next hop (the router). The result is
the link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is passed
to the physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the
Router
 At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation
because the router is connected to two or more links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer
decapsulates the datagram from the frame and passes it to the
network layer.
2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination
addresses in the datagram header and consults its forwarding
table to find the next hop to which the datagram is to be
delivered. The contents of the datagram should not be changed
by the network layer in the router unless there is a need to
fragment the datagram if it is too big to be passed through the
next link. The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of
the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram in a
frame and passes it to the physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation at the Destination
Host
 At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates the packet
received, removes the payload, and delivers the payload to the next-
higher layer protocol until the message reaches the application layer.
 decapsulation in the host involves error checking.

Addressing
 we have logical communication between pairs of layers in this model.
 Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses:
source address and destination address.
 Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per
layer, we normally have only four because the physical layer does not
need addresses; the unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a
bit, which definitely cannot have an address.
 There is a relationship between the layer, the address used in
that layer, and the packet name at that layer.
At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site
that provides services, such as someorg.com,or the e-mail address,
such as [email protected].
 At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these
define the application-layer programs at the source and destination.
 Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish between several
programs running at the same time. Port number is a numerical
value that assigned to an application in an endpoint of
communication and used to identify particular process executing in
the device.
 At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole
Internet
as the scope.
 A network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to
the Internet.
 The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally
defined addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a
network (LAN or WAN).
Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing
 Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at some layers,
we can say that we have multiplexing at the source and
demultiplexing at the destination.
 Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can
encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer protocols (one at
a time)
 Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and deliver a
packet to several next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
 To be able to multiplex and demultiplex, a protocol needs to have a field
in its header to identify to which protocol the encapsulated packets
belong.
 At the transport layer, either UDP or TCP can accept a message from
several application-layer protocols.
 At the network layer, IP can accept a segment from TCP or a user
datagram from UDP.
 IP can also accept a packet from other protocols such as ICMP, IGMP,
and so on.
 At the data-link layer, a frame may carry the payload coming from IP or
other protocols such as ARP
THE OSI
MODEL
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced
in the late 1970s.
 ISO is the organization; OSI is the model.
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes
to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
 The OSI model was intended to be the basis for the creation of the
protocols in the OSI stack.
 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network
systems that allows communication between all types of computer
systems.
 It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines
a
part of the process of moving information across a network
OSI versus
TCP/IP

 Two layers, session and presentation are missing from the

TCP/IP protocol suite.
 The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be
the combination of three layers in the OSI model
 TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol. Some of the
functionalities of the session layer are available in some of the
transport-layer protocols.
 The application layer is not only one piece of software. Many
applications can be developed at this layer.
 If some of the functionalities mentioned in the session and
presentation layers are needed for a particular application, they
can be included in the development of that piece of software.

Lack of OSI Model’s Success

 OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of
time and money had been spent on the suite; changing it would
cost a lot.
 Some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined.
 For example, although the services provided by the presentation
and the session layers were listed in the document, actual
protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were
they fully described, and the corresponding software was not
fully developed.
 when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different
application, it did not show a high enough level of performance to
entice the Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol
suite to the OSI model.
 The
 Backbone networks are large networks owned by companies like
Sprint , Verizon , AT&T andInternet
NTT. They are connected through peering
points.
 Peering point where internet networks come together to peer or
exchange traffic between their networks.
 Provider networks company that owns, operates and sells access to
internet backbone infrastructure and services.
 Customer networks that actually use the services provided by the
internet.
 Accessing
 Using Telephone Networks
the
Internet
• Dial up Service : To the telephone line add a modem that converts data to
voice. But it is very slow when line used for internet connection.
• DSL Service (digital subscriber line) : Telephone companies have upgraded their
telephone lines to provide higher speed internet services .
 Using Cable Networks
• The cable companies have been upgrading their cable networks
to provide internet connection.
• But speed varies depending on the number of neighbors that use the same
cable.
 Using Wireless Networks
• A household or small business can be connected to the
internet
through a wireless LAN.
 Direct Connection to the internet : A large organization can become a local
ISP and be connected to internet.
 Internet
 It is a collaboration more than hundreds of thousands
of interconnected of
networks.
 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of
Defense found a way to connect computers so that they can share
their information.

 ARPANET, a small network of connected computers which allows host

computer attached to specialized computer called interface message
processor(IMP).

 Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as

with its attached host.

 ARPANET was split in to two networks: Military Network(MILNET) for

military users and ARPANET for non military users.
 Interne
 Computer Science Network(CSNET) was a network sponsored by the
t
National Science Foundation. It is a less expensive network and the
transmission rate was slower.

 National Science Foundation Network(NSFNET) was a backbone

network that connected five supercomputer centers located
throughout the United states . It was not supporting rapidly
increased internet traffic.

 Advanced Network Services Network(ANSNET) provides a high speed

internet .
 Standards and
Administration
 Internet Standard : It is a formalized regulation that must be followed
and useful to those who work with the internet.
 An Internet draft is a working document with no official status and a
six month life time.
 This draft is published as a Request for comment(RFC) where each
RFC is edited , assigned a number and made available to all
interested parties.

 RFC (stands for Request For Comments) is a document

that describes the standards, protocols, and
technologies of the Internet and TCP/IP
 Maturity
 Levels
Proposed standard : It is a specification which is stable, understood
and of sufficient interest to the Internet community.
 Draft standard : A proposed standard is situated to draft standard
status after at least two successful independent and interoperable
implementations.
 Internet standard : A draft standard reaches internet standard after
demonstrations of successful implementation.
 Historic : They have never passed the necessary maturity levels to
become an internet standard.
 Experimental : It describes work related to an experimental
operation
that does not affect the operation of the internet.
 Informational : It contains general , historical or tutorial information
related to the internet .
 Requirement
Levels
 Required : An RFC is labeled required if
it isimplemented by all
internet systems to achieve minimum specified standards.
Eg : IP and ICMP are required protocols
 Recommended : An RFC is labeled recommended if it is not
required for minimum specified standards.
Eg : FTP and TELNET are recommended protocols
 Elective : An RFC is labeled elective is not required and
not recommended. However, a system can use it for its own benefit.
 Limited Use : An RFC is labeled limited use should be used only in
limited situation
Eg: experimental
 Not RFCs. : A n is labeled not recommended
Recommended
RFC inappropriate for general is
use.
Eg:historic RFCs.
 Internet
Administration
The Internet, with its roots primarily in the research domain.
 Various groups that coordinate Internet issues have guided
this
growth and development.
 Figure below shows the general organization of
Internet administration
Internet Society (ISOC)
 ISOC is an international, nonprofit organization formed in 1992 to
provide support for the Internet standards process.
 ISOC accomplishes this through maintaining and supporting other
Internet administrative bodies such as IAB,IETF, IRTF, and IANA .
 Also promotes research and other scholarly activities relating to
the Internet.
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
 The IAB is the technical advisor to the ISOC.
 Purposes
• oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP
Protocol Suite
• serve in a technical advisory capacity to research members of
the Internet community.
 IAB accomplishes this through its two primary
components: 1.Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
2.Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
 Another responsibility of the IAB is the editorial
management
of the RFCs.
Internet Engineering Task Force(IETF )
 Forum of working groups managed by the Internet
Engineering
Steering Group (IESG).
 Responsible for identifying operational problems and
proposing solutions to these problems.
 Also develops and reviews specifications intended as
Internet standards.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF )
• forum of working groups managed Internet Research
by Steering Group (IRSG).
• focuses on long-term research related to
protocols,
topics applications, architecture, and Internet
technology.
Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

7.80
Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

7.81
 7-1 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a

communication from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals
are transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Topics discussed in this section:

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

7.82
Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation
of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range
for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.
35.7OOPs Concepts in Java
 Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the
categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
o Attenuation means loss of signals strength in networking cables or
connections.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire
that allows the higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV
wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to
each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer
conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core,
the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.

o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main

functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.

o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The

main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra
fibre protection.
Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable

7.91
Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

7.92
 Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

7.93
Figure 7.6 UTP performance

7.94
Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

7.95
 Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

7.96
Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

7.97
Figure 7.10 Fiber optics: Bending of light ray

7.98
Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

7.99
Figure 7.12 Propagation modes

7.100
Figure 7.13 Modes

7.101
Table 7.3 Fiber types

7.102
Figure 7.14 Fiber construction

7.103
Figure 7.15 Fiber-optic cable connectors

7.104
Figure 7.16 Optical fiber performance

7.105
 7-2 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a

physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred
to as wireless communication.
•An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
•In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can
flow easily.

Topics discussed in this section:

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

7.106
Figure 7.19 Wireless transmission waves

7.107
Radio waves
•Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of
free space.
•Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
•The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
•In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned or
arranged, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
•An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:
•A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
•An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

•Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
•Radio waves cover a large area, and they can enters the walls.
•Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types

•Terrestrial microwave
•Satellite microwave communication.
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission
antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.

Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-
23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.
 Advantages Of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave
transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any
malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible
to weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as
rain, wind can pull the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication
o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known
height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more
flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal or increase the power of signal. The amplified signal is
retransmitted to another earth station.
 Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial
microwave.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another
launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
 Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication
over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between TV
remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides
in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot enters the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun
rays will interfere with the infrared waves.
Figure 7.17 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

7.116
Figure 7.18 Propagation methods

7.117
 Table 7.4 Bands

7.118
 Note
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television.
They can penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas

7.119
Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antenna

7.120
 Note
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks,
and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications.

7.121
Figure 7.21 Unidirectional antennas

7.122
 Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using
line-of-sight propagation.

7.123
TRANSMISSION
MODES
 The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished
in
either parallel or serial mode.
Parallel Transmission
 Here multiple bits are sent with each clock.
 Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n
bits each.
 Use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its own
wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick
from one device to another.
 Advantage:
 Speed : Parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a
factor of n over serial transmission.
 Disadvantage:
 Cost : Parallel transmission requires n communication lines
just to
transmit the data stream.
Serial Transmission
 Here 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
 One bit follows another, so we need only one communication
channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating
devices .
 Advantage:
 The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only
one communication channel.
 Serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over
parallel by roughly a factor of n
 Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways:
1. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous
3.Isochronous.
Asynchronous
Transmission
 In this mode we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more
stop
bit (1s) at the end of each byte.
 Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a
signal is unimportant.
 Information is received and translated by agreed upon
patterns.
Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream in to bytes.
 Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to
predict
when the next group will arrive.
 To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra
bit is added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is
called the start bit.
 To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more
 In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap
of varying duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle
channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.
 The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and
end of each byte and allow it to synchronize with the data stream.
When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and begins counting
bits as they come in. After n bits, the receiver looks for a stop bit. As soon
as it detects the stop bit, it waits until it detects the next start bit.
Synchronous
Transmission
 Here the bit stream is combined into longer “frames,” which may
contain
multiple bytes.
 Each byte, is introduced onto the transmission link without a
gap
between it and the next one.
 It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for
decoding purposes.
 Here we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps.
It
is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the
received information is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving
device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in.
 Advantage :
• Speed : With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at the sending end and
remove at the receiving end, and, by extension, with fewer bits to move
across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous
transmission.
Isochronous Transmission
 This mode provides synchronization for the entire stream of bits.
 It is used with real time audio and video applications.
 In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames
are
not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
 For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per
second; they must be viewed at the same rate.
If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should
be no delays between frames.
 For this type of application, synchronization between characters
is
not enough; the entire stream of bits must be synchronized.
 The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a
fixed rate.
Physical Layer-
1ata and Signals
D

 Data need to be transmitted and received, but the media

have to change data to signals.
 Both data and the signals that represent them can be either
analog or digital in form.

 Analog data refers to information that is continuous.

For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and
second hands gives information in a continuous form; the
movements of the hands are continuous.

 Digital data refers to information that has discrete

states. For example, digital clock that reports the hours
and the minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to
8:06.
 Analog and Digital Signals

 Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take

on continuous values.

 Digital data are the data stored in computer memory in the

form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal

 An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a

period of time. As the wave moves from value A to value B, it
passes through and includes an infinite number of values along
its path.

 A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited

number of defined values. Although each value can be any
number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
3.8
3
Figure 3.2: Comparison of analog and digital signals
 Periodic and Nonperiodic
 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable
time frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern
over subsequent identical periods.

 The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

 A non periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern

or cycle that repeats over time.

 Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or

non
periodic.

 In data communication, we commonly use periodic analog

signals and non periodic digital signals.
 Sine Wave

 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a

periodic analog signal.

Valu
e

•••
Time

 A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the

peak amplitude, the frequency ,and the phase.
Peak

Amplitude
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of
its highest intensity, proportional to the energy it carries

Peak
amplitude

Peak
amplitude

Figure 3.4: Two signals with two different amplitudes

Period and
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a
Frequency

signal needs to complete 1 cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.
Phas

e The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position of
the
waveform relative to time 0.
• A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero
amplitude. The amplitude is increasing.
• A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak
amplitude.
The amplitude is decreasing.
• A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero
amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.
 Another way to look at the phase is in terms of shift or offset.
We can say that
• A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.
• A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by ¼
cycle
However, note that the signal does not really exist before
time 0.
 Digital
 In Signals
addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can
also be represented by a digital signal.
 For example, 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as
zero
voltage.
 A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can
send
more than 1 bit for each level.
Complexity
 A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple
one.
 For example, a scheme that uses four signal levels is more difficult
to
interpret than one that uses only two levels.
Line Coding:

Data as well as signals that represents data can either be

digital or analog.
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to
digital signals. By this technique we converts a sequence
of bits to a digital signal.
At the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital
signal and at the receiver side the digital data are recreated
by decoding the digital signal.
characteristic of these line coding techniques:
•There should be self-synchronizing i.e., both receiver
and sender clock should be synchronized.
•There should have some error-detecting capability.
•There should be immunity to noise and interference.
•There should be less complexity.
•There should be no low frequency component as long
distance transfer is not feasible for low frequency
component signal.
Line Coding Schemes
Unipolar
 In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the
Scheme
time
axis
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)
 Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-
to- zero (NRZ) scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit
1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0.
 It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at
the
middle of the bit.
1 = +ve & 0 = 0
Polar
 In polar schemes, the voltages are on both sides of the time
Schemes
axis.
 For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the
voltage
level for 1 can be negative.
Non-Return-to-Zero
(NRZ)
 In polar NRZ encoding,
we use two levels of
voltage amplitude.
 We can have two versions
of polar NRZ:
• NRZ-L (NRZ-Level): the
level of the voltage
determines the value
of the
bit
• NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert):the
NRZ-L :
0 = +ve & 1 = -ve

NRZ-I:
0 = No transition
Return-to-Zero
 Uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
(RZ)
 In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the
bit.

 As shown in the figure the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each

bit. It remains there until the beginning of the next bit.
 0 =
Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
 The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of
NRZ-L are combined into the Manchester scheme.
 In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two
halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and
moves to the other level in the second half. The transition at the
middle of the bit provides synchronization.
 Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of
RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the middle of the bit,
but the bit values are determined at the beginning of the bit. If the
next bit is 0, there is a transition; if the next bit is 1, No transition.

Manchester:
1 = -ve to +ve transition, 0 = +ve to –ve transition
Differential Manchester:
0 = transition, 1 = No Transition
Bipolar
Schemes
 In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are
three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.
 The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage
level for the other element alternates between positive and
negative.
 Two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary
 In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from
telegraphy and means 1.
 So AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral zero voltage
represents binary 0. Binary 1s are represented by alternating
positive and negative voltages.
 A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1
bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as
alternating positive and negative voltages.
AMI:
0 = Draw line on reference line
1 = draw one line above & one line below

Pseudoternary:
0= Draw one line above & one line below
1 = draw line on reference line
Summary of line coding schemes
•In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer
from the bottom.

•The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as

links, and in order to move the datagram from source to the destination.

•The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram
across an individual link.

•The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged
across the nodes as well as the actions such as Error detection, retransmission,
flow control, and random access.

•The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring and PPP.

•An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be

handled by different link layer protocols on different links in a path. For
example, the datagram is handled by Ethernet on the first link, PPP on the
second link.
Framing
data link uses the services given to the physical layer.

The source machine sends the data in the form of frames to

the destination machine.

Starting point and the endpoint of the frame should point

out so that the destination machine can easily identify the
frame.

The data link layer breaks the bitstream and calculates the
checksum for each layer.

At the destination layer, the checksum is mentioned one by

one. Therefore, breaking the bitstream by placing spaces
and time gaps is known as framing.
1.Unacknowledged Connectionless Service :
Unacknowledged connectionless service simply provides
datagram styles delivery without any error, issue, or flow
control.

In this service, source machine generally transmits

independent frames to destination machine without having
destination machine to acknowledge these frames.

In Data Link Layer, if anyhow frame is lost due to noise,

there will be no attempt made just to detect or determine
loss or recovery from it. This simply means that there will be
no error or flow control. An example can be Ethernet.
2. Acknowledged Connectionless Service :
This service simply provides acknowledged connectionless
service i.e. packet delivery is simply acknowledged, with
help of stop and wait for protocol.

In this service, each frame that is transmitted by Data Link

Layer is simply acknowledged individually and then sender
usually knows whether or not these transmitted data frames
received safely.

There is no logical connection established and each frame

that is transmitted is acknowledged individually.
1.This mode simply provides means by which user of data
link can just send or transfer data and request return of
data at the same time. It also uses particular time period
that if it has passed frame without getting acknowledgment,
then it will resend data frame on time period.

2. This service is more reliable than unacknowledged

connectionless service. This service is generally useful over
several unreliable channels, like wireless systems, Wi-Fi
services, etc.
3. Acknowledged Connection-Oriented Service :
In this type of service, connection is established first
among sender and receiver or source and destination
before data is transferred.

Then data is transferred or transmitted along with this

established connection. In this service, each of frames that
are transmitted is provided individual numbers first,

so as to confirm and guarantee that each of frames is

received only once that too in an appropriate order and
sequence.
1. Byte count :
The first framing method uses a field in the header to specify the
number of bytes in the frame.

2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing:

In this method, start and end frame are recognized with the help of flag
byte.

3. Flag bit using bit stuffing:

Is the mechanism of inserting one or more non-informative bits into a
message to be transmitted.

4. Physical layer coding violation:

In order to operate a division between frames in DLL this approach
exploits the redundancy in PL encoding that represents data as:
00 – error, 01-low, 10-high, 11-error
So, error codes 00 & 11 can be used as escapes to separate between
DL frames.
Ways of doing Error Control :
There are basically two ways of doing Error control as
given below :
1. Error Detection :
Error detection, as name suggests, simply means detection
or identification of errors. These errors may cause due to
noise or any other impairments during transmission from
transmitter to the receiver, in communication system. It is
class of technique for detecting garbled i.e. unclear and
distorted data or message.

2. Error Correction :
Error correction, as name suggests, simply means
correction or solving or fixing of errors. It means
reconstruction of original data that is error-free. But error
correction method is very costly and is very hard.
Approaches to Flow Control :
Flow Control is classified into two categories –
•Feedback – based Flow Control :
In this control technique, sender transmits data or information or frame
to receiver, then receiver transmits data back to sender and also allows
sender to transmit more amount of data or tell sender about how
receiver is processing or doing.
•This means that sender transmits data or frames after it has received
acknowledgments from user.

•Rate – based Flow Control :

In this control technique, usually when sender sends or transfer data at
faster speed to receiver and receiver is not being able to receive data
at the speed, then mechanism known as built-in mechanism in protocol
will just limit or restricts overall rate at which data or information is being
transferred or transmitted by sender without any feedback or
acknowledgment from receiver.
CYCLIC CODES

Cyclic codes are special linear block

codes with one extra property. In a
cyclic code, if a codeword is
cyclically shifted (rotated), the result
is another codeword.
Topics discussed in this section:

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Hardware Implementation
Polynomials
Cyclic Code Analysis
Advantages of Cyclic Codes
Other Cyclic Codes
A CRC code with C(7, 4)
CRC encoder and decoder
Division in CRC encoder
Figure 10.16 Division in the CRC decoder for two cases
Figure 10.17 Hardwired design of the divisor in CRC
Figure 10.18 Simulation of division in CRC encoder
Using Polynomials

We can use a polynomial to represent a binary

word.
Each bit from right to left is mapped onto a
power term.
The rightmost bit represents the “0” power term.
The bit next to it the “1” power term, etc.
If the bit is of value zero, the power term is
deleted from the expression.
Figure 10.22 CRC division using polynomials
Simplex Protocol
The Simplex protocol is hypothetical protocol designed for unidirectional data
transmission over an ideal channel, i.e. a channel through which transmission
can never go wrong. It has distinct procedures for sender and receiver. The
sender simply sends all its data available onto the channel as soon as they are
available to its buffer. The receiver is assumed to process all incoming data
instantly. It is hypothetical since it does not handle flow control or error control.

Stop – and – Wait Protocol

Stop – and – Wait protocol is for noiseless channel too. It provides unidirectional
data transmission without any error control facilities. However, it provides for
flow control so that a fast sender does not drown a slow receiver. The receiver
has a finite buffer size with finite processing speed. The sender can send a
frame only when it has received indication from the receiver that it is available
for further data processing.
Stop and Wait

Source transmits single frame

Wait for ACK
If received frame damaged, discard it
Transmitter has timeout
If no ACK within timeout, retransmit
If ACK damaged, transmitter will not recognize it
Transmitter will retransmit
Receiver gets two copies of frame
Use ACK0 and ACK1
Stop and Wait -
Diagram
Stop and Wait - Pros and Cons

Simple
Inefficient
Stop – and – Wait ARQ
Stop – and – wait Automatic Repeat Request (Stop – and – Wait ARQ) is a
variation of the above protocol with added error control mechanisms, appropriate
for noisy channels. The sender keeps a copy of the sent frame. It then waits for a
finite time to receive a positive acknowledgement from receiver. If the timer expires
or a negative acknowledgement is received, the frame is retransmitted. If a
positive acknowledgement is received then the next frame is sent.

Negative Acknowledgment :
Whenever the receiver receives a damaged frame or a duplicate frame, it sends a
NACK back to the sender and sender must retransmit the correct frame.
Sender:
Rule 1) Send one data packet at a
time.
Rule 2) Send the next packet only
after receiving acknowledgement
for the previous.

Receiver:
Rule 1) Send acknowledgement
after receiving and consuming a
data packet.
Rule 2) After consuming packet
acknowledgement need to be sent
(Flow Control)
Sliding Window Protocol
The sliding window is a technique for sending multiple
frames at a time. It controls the data packets between the
two devices where reliable and gradual delivery of data
frames is needed. It is also used in TCP (
Transmission Control Protocol)

In this technique, each frame has sent from the sequence

number. The sequence numbers are used to find the
missing data in the receiver end. The purpose of the
sliding window technique is to avoid duplicate data, so
it uses the sequence number.
Go – Back – N ARQ
Go – Back – N ARQ provides for sending multiple frames before receiving the
acknowledgement for the first frame. It uses the concept of sliding window, and so is
also called sliding window protocol. The frames are sequentially numbered and a
finite number of frames are sent. If the acknowledgement of a frame is not received
within the time period, all frames starting from that frame are retransmitted.
Selective Repeat ARQ
This protocol also provides for sending multiple frames before receiving the
acknowledgement for the first frame. However, here only the erroneous or
lost frames are retransmitted, while the good frames are received and
buffered.