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Themes 2 and 3 Revision

The document summarizes key concepts in integration and calculus including: 1) The fundamental theorem of calculus, integration by parts, trigonometric substitutions, and partial fractions for evaluating integrals. 2) Types of improper integrals and the comparison test for determining convergence. 3) Using integrals to find areas, lengths, volumes, and surfaces of revolution. 4) Basic properties and operations for complex numbers, polynomials, and working with expressions in polar form.

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18 views13 pages

Themes 2 and 3 Revision

The document summarizes key concepts in integration and calculus including: 1) The fundamental theorem of calculus, integration by parts, trigonometric substitutions, and partial fractions for evaluating integrals. 2) Types of improper integrals and the comparison test for determining convergence. 3) Using integrals to find areas, lengths, volumes, and surfaces of revolution. 4) Basic properties and operations for complex numbers, polynomials, and working with expressions in polar form.

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sprinklesdb16
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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WTW 164

Themes 2 and 3: Revision


Dr HR (Maya) Thackeray
<[email protected]>
Integration
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus part 1: = f(x).
• = f(x) + C.
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus part 2: = F(b) – F(a) where F’ = f.
• Net Change Theorem: = f(b) – f(a) = = .
• Substitution (chain rule in reverse), letting u = g(x):
=; =.
• Integration by parts (product rule in reverse):
= f(x)g(x) – ; = uv – ;
= –.
Example: Integration
= (letting u = sin x, du = cos x dx)
= = –0= =.
For cos x dx times something that can be written in terms of sin x, let u = sin x.
(This happens for a power of sin x times a power of cos x if the power of cos x
is odd.)
For sin x dx times something that can be written in terms of cos x, let u = cos x.
(This happens for a power of sin x times a power of cos x if the power of sin x is
odd.)
Similar rules hold for other substitutions.
For an even power of sin x times an even power of cos x, use the equations =
(1 – cos 2x)/2 and/or = (1 + cos 2x)/2.
Trigonometric substitutions
• : x = a sin θ, θ in [–π/2, π/2]; becomes a cos θ
(use 1 – sin2θ = cos2θ).
• : x = a tan θ, θ in (–π/2, π/2); becomes a sec θ
(use 1 + tan2θ = sec2θ).
• : x = a sec θ, θ in [0, π/2) U [π, 3π/2); becomes a tan θ
(use sec2θ – 1 = tan2θ).
Example:
= = (let x + 1 = tan θ, dx = dθ)
= = ln|sec θ + tan θ| + C = ln| + x + 1| + C
(think of a right triangle with side x + 1 opposite θ and side 1 adjacent to θ).
Partial fractions
Do this when integrating P(x)/Q(x) where P and Q are polynomials and deg P < deg Q (if deg
P is at least deg Q then do long division first):
• Factorize Q(x).
• For each (ax + b)n dividing Q, write A1/(ax + b) + A2/(ax + b)2 + … + An/(ax + b)n.
• For each (ax2 + bx + c)n dividing Q, write (B1x + C1)/(ax2 + bx + c)
+ (B2x + C2) /(ax2 + bx + c)2 + … + (Bnx + Cn)/(ax2 + bx + c)n.
• Solve for the Ak, Bk, and Ck values, then integrate.

= (let x = tan θ, dx = dθ) = =


= + C = + C (think of a right-angled triangle with legs x
and 1 opposite and adjacent to θ respectively).
Improper integrals
Type 1 improper integrals:
=, =,
and = + .
Type 2 improper integrals (f discontinuous at c):
=, =,
and for c in (a,b): = + .
Each integral is convergent (and is said to converge) if all the associated limits exist,
and is divergent (and is said to diverge) otherwise.
“p-test”: is 1/(p – 1) if p > 1, and is divergent otherwise;
is 1/(1 – p) if p < 1, and is divergent otherwise.
Example: Improper integrals
=
= (integrating by parts)
= = =
= = (l’Hôpital’s rule for “/”)
= = 0.
Comparison test
0 g(x) f(x) for x a; f and g continuous on [a,).
• If is convergent, then so is .
• If is divergent, then so is .
Analogous versions of the comparison test hold for other types of
improper integrals.
Example: .
We have 0 1/(x3 + 3) 1/x3 for x in [1,).
converges (“p-test” for p > 1).
By the comparison test, also converges.
Length, area, volume
• Area between y = f(x) and y = g(x), x in [a,b]: .
• Area between x = f(y) and x = g(y), y in [c,d]: .
Volume of a solid of revolution:
• if rotating y = f(x), x in [a,b] about the x axis, and
• if rotating x = g(y), y in [c,d] about the y axis.
Arc length of curve C: , where ds “= ” = dx = dy.
Area of surface of revolution of curve C:
• if rotating C about the x axis, and
• if rotating C about the y axis.
Complex numbers
i2 = –1, z = a + bi = Re(z) + i Im(z).
For c > 0, we define the principal square root = i.
For real numbers a, b, and c with a not 0, the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0
are x = .
= a – bi, |z| = . (See lists of properties.)
(a + bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i, s(a + bi) = sa + sbi,
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac – bd) + (ad + bc)i.
To get (a + bi)/(c + di), multiply top and bottom by c – di.
Polar form
z = r cis θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ). (We define ea + ib = ea cis b for real a and b.)
Principal/Main argument: θ in (-π, π].
(r1 cis θ1)(r2 cis θ2) = r1r2 cis(θ1 + θ2).
(r1 cis θ1)/(r2 cis θ2) = (r1/r2) cis(θ1 – θ2).
De Moivre’s theorem (for positive integers n): (r cis θ)n = rn cis nθ.
De Moivre’s theorem for nth roots: The nth roots of r cis θ are
r1/n cis((θ + 2kπ)/n), k in {0,1,…,n – 1}.
Polynomials
A polynomial anxn + … + a1x + a0 is over or over if all the coefficients ak are in or in respectively.
Remainder Theorem: f(x) divided by x – c gives remainder f(c).
Factor Theorem: x – c divides f(x) if and only if f(c) = 0.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Every nonconstant polynomial over has a root in .
Corollary: Every nonconstant polynomial over of degree n, with n at least 1, is the product of n
linear factors over .
Corollary: Every nonconstant polynomial over of degree n, with n at least 1, has exactly n roots
in counting multiplicity.
Theorem: Every nonconstant polynomial over is the product of linear and/or irreducible
quadratic factors over .
(For real a, b, and c with a not 0: ax2 + bx + c is irreducible over if and only if b2 – 4ac < 0.)
Conjugate Roots Theorem: For a polynomial f(x) over , if z in is a root of f(x) then so is .
Example: Polynomials
The number –1 + i is a root of f(x) = x5 + x4 + x3 – x2 – 2. Write f(x) as a
product of linear and/or irreducible quadratic factors over .
By the Conjugate Roots Theorem, –1 – i is also a root of f(x). By the Factor
Theorem, f(x) is divisible by
(x – (–1 + i))(x – (–1 – i)) = (x + 1 – i)(x + 1 + i) = (x + 1)2 – i2 = x2 + 2x + 2.
Long division gives f(x) = (x2 + 2x + 2)(x3 – x2 + x – 1).
x3 – x2 + x – 1: x = 1 gives 13 – 12 + 1 – 1 = 0, so x – 1 is a factor (Factor
Theorem).
x3 – x2 + x – 1 = (x – 1)x2 + (x – 1) = (x – 1)(x2 + 1).
Therefore, x5 + x4 + x3 – x2 – 2 = (x2 + 2x + 2)(x – 1)(x2 + 1).

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